Honeybee - Research in Progress

Project Title Introduction and early performance of queen bees - some factors affecting success

RIRDC Project No: DAN-182A

Start Date: 1/09/99

Finish Date: 31/07/00

Researcher: Mr. John Rhodes

Organisation: NSW Department of Agriculture
RMB 944
Calala Lane
TAMWORTH NSW 2340

Phone: (02) 6763 1206

Fax: (02) 6763 1222

Email: rhodesj@agric.nsw.gov.au

Objectives
· To determine whether the age of the queen bee at introduction influences introduction success.
· To identify factors affecting sperm counts of sister queen bees, mated under the same mating conditions and to investigate relationships between low spem counts and queen failure following introduction.
· To examine the effects of temperature and humidity during transport of queen bees on their introduction success.

Current Progress Laboratory and field data collections were complete in March, 2000. The Final Report on the project has been completed to first draft stage.
Queen bee survival rates at 14 days and 15 weeks after introduction were obtained for sister queen bees caught from mating nuclei at 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days of age.
Ovariole numbers, sperm counts, Nosema disease status, as well as the number and amounts of mandibular gland pheromones present have been obtained for a separate group of sister queens examined at 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days of age. Temperatures, humidities, the number of hours in transit and the number of dead bees in each cage on arrival at their destination were obtained for 10 consignments of queen bees, following transport between the queen bee breeder and the honey producer’s apiary.

Project Title Can the technique of 'shaking bees' and antibiotic therapy be used as a means of controlling American Foulbrood?

RIRDC Project No: DAN-176A

Start Date: 1/12/98

Finish Date: 31/1/01

Researcher: Mr. Michael Hornitzky

Organisation: Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute
Private Mail Bag 8
CAMDEN NSW 2570

Phone: (02) 4640 6311

Fax: (02) 4640 6400

Email: michael.hornitzky@agric.nsw.gov.au

Objective To determine whether the technique of shaking bees from hives with American foulbrood (AFB) onto foundation or irradiated hive equipment followed by treatment with oxytetracycline hydrochloride is an effective alternative to current control strategies.

Current Progress Currently there are five cooperating beekeepers with 101 hives involved in this project.
The number of treatment procedures has been reduced to three. These are:
1. "Shaking" bees onto foundation
2. "Shaking" bees onto irradiated material with one treatment of oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC) and
3. "Shaking" bees onto foundation with one treatment of OTC.
The other three treatment procedures were eliminated, as they were considered impractical or unlikely to be successful from a commercial beekeeping stand point.
Five hives from two cooperating beekeepers with 35 hives have become re-infected with American Foulbrood. There are three beekeepers with 66 hives where all treatments have been successful. The major losses of hives in these trials are from dead outs and absconding or loss of queen bees. Further hive examinations need to be carried out next spring, to confirm the success of these treatments.
The project is expected to be completed on schedule.

Project Title European Foulbrood - investigating control measures

RIRDC Project No: DAV-157A

Start Date: 7/12/98

Finish Date: 30/06/02

Researcher: Mr. Russell Goodman

Organisation: Department of Natural Resources & Environment
Institute for Horticultural Development
Private Bag 15
SOUTH EAST MAIL CENTRE VIC 3176

Phone: (03) 9210 9222

Fax: (03) 9800 3521

Email: russell.goodman@nre.vic.gov.au

Objectives
(a) To protect the apiary industry's continued access to domestic and export honey markets by reducing or eliminating the industry's dependence on oxtetracycline hydrochloride (OTC) for the control of the bacterial honeybee brood disease, European Foulbrood (EFB) (Melissococcus pluton).
(b) To determine the efficacy of reduced doses of OTC and use of OTC extender patties for the control of EFB and to determine if these measures reduce or eliminate the occurrence of OTC residues in honey.
(c) To identify and develop alternative, non-antibiotic measures for control of EFB by investigating, primarily, the effect of enhanced honeybee colony nutrition and changed pH of honeybee larval guts.
(d) To obtain a greater understanding of active and latent infections of M. pluton and Paenibacillus alvei (a common secondary invader) in honeybee larvae and to develop new Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) methodologies for detection of M. pluton as a necessary prerequisite and support of the preceding aim (c)

Current Progress Preliminary OTC dosage rates trial
Forty-one hives infected with European foulbrood (EFB) were treated with various doses of OTC to determine their efficacy. Pre-and post treatment counts of diseased larvae were conducted 12, 22 and 41 days after treatment.
OTC doses and minimum inhibitory concentration of OTC for M. pluton
Field trials were conducted to determine if various doses of OTC applied to honeybee colonies of different sizes would provide honeybee larvae with sufficient medication to meet the minimum inhibitory concentration of OTC for M. pluton. Investigations were also conducted to the concentration of OTC in whole honeybee larvae and the mid-guts of larvae.
Degradation of OTC in honey
Studies on the degradation of OTC in honey continued throughout the year. Samples were taken on a monthly basis from honey extracted from hives treated with 1g active OTC and stored at ambient temperature. Samples were also obtained from six different floral honeys spiked with OTC and held at 22ºC and 35ºC.
Epidemiology of M. pluton
Ben McKee, research team member and PhD student, visited the Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, NSW, to obtain skills in Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques. The techniques were further developed, tested and shown to be specific for Melissoccus pluton the causal organism of EFB.
Effect of nutrition on EFB
A total of 110 hives were purchased and requeened in preparation for a major trial to commence in Autumn. A supplementary high protein cake was developed for feeding to hives belonging to one of the treatment groups of this trial.

Project Title Guidelines for honeybee disease barrier systems and wax dipping sterilisation

RIRDC Project No: DAV-167A

Start Date: 1/07/99

Finish Date: 10/06/00

Researcher: Mr. Russell Goodman

Organisation: Department of Natural Resources & Environment
Institute for Horticultural Development
Private Bag 15
SOUTH EAST MAIL CENTRE VIC 3176

Phone: (03) 9210 9222

Fax: (03) 9800 3521

Email: russell.goodman@nre.vic.gov.au

Objective To assist the apiary industry reduce and control the spread of the notifiable honeybee brood disease, American Foulbrood (AFB), and other diseases, by developing an extension manual of 'best practice' hive barrier management systems and hot wax dipping sterilisation techniques for use by Australian apiarists.

Current Progress A literature search using the electronic webspirs (Internet) data bases, Agricola and CAB abstracts, was conducted to identify current trends in apiary disease barrier management and hot wax dipping sterilisation techniques used in other countries.
Evaluation of current Australian industry practices has commenced. The principal investigator, Mr Russell Goodman, visited selected apiarists to document and photograph various methods of hot wax dipping of beehive components. Best practice and operator safety concerns were identified as important issues for inclusion in a draft manual that was nearing completion at the time of writing.
Information on bee disease, barrier management systems, was sourced, with permission, from two South Australian apiarists, firstly by way of a comprehensive video and secondly from a printed presentation produced for the Victorian Apiarists’ Association Inc. 1999 annual conference. Compilation of an illustrated draft manual on barrier management has commenced.

Project Title Production of a publication on honeybee nutrition in Australia - 'Fat bees/skinny bees'

RIRDC Project No: DAN-186A

Start Date: 1/01/00

Finish Date: 31/10/02

Researcher: Mr. Doug Somerville

Organisation: NSW Department of Agriculture
PO Box 389
GOULBURN NSW 2580

Phone: (02) 4823 0619

Fax: (02) 4822 3261

Email: doug.somerville@agric.nsw.gov.au

Objective To produce an extension publication on honeybee nutrition, incorporating research findings from past RIRDC projects, literature searches and anecdotal examples of applications in the Australian context in a format that will be readily understood and adopted by beekeepers.

Current Progress Interviews with a few commercial beekeepers on their management strategies using protein and carbohydrate supplements have taken place. These include Warren Taylor (Australian Queen Bee Exporters) who is Australia’s largest exporter of package bees based in the central tablelands of NSW; Kevin and Glen Emmins, Mildura, Victoria; Leigh Duffield, South Australia; Geoff Smith, South Australia; John Fuss, South Australia; Graham Wagenfeller, South Australia; Ian and Shirley Stephens, Tasmania; and part interview with Stan Hughston, Wanaaring, NSW

Project Title Export package bees - evaluating a lupin flour based feed for increased live bee production

RIRDC Project No: DAW-75A

Start Date: 1/01/97

Finish Date: 30/04/01

Researcher: Mr. Robert Manning

Organisation: Agriculture Western Australia
Locked Bag No 4
BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983

Phone: (08) 9368 3567

Fax: (08) 9474 1295

Email: rmanning@agric.wa.gov.au

Objectives
· Develop a lupin flour feed that is more palatable than expeller soyflour and/or Torula yeast.
· To enhance live bee production by developing a lupin based feed that is cost effective in comparison to other high protein feeds.

Current Progress This project has been on 'hold' for a couple of years as the research apiary was destroyed under instructions from Agriculture WA veterinary officers following the finding of the exotic disease Chalkbrood.
Currently the re-establishment of the apiary has been refunded and two thirds of the number of hives required for the experiment have been purchased from Agriculture WA funds. The rest are to be delivered soon.
Procuring lupin flower has been difficult since the previous supplier no longer supplies lupin flour.
When a few more technical issues have been solved, the experimental plan will be resubmitted to RIRDC for approval before the project recommences.

Project Title Pollen analysis of Eucalyptus patens (Blackbutt), E. accedens (Powderbark) and E. wandoo (Winter Wandoo variety) in Western Australia

RIRDC Project No: DAW-91A

Start Date: 1/07/98

Finish Date: 15/07/00

Researcher: Mr. Robert Manning

Organisation: Agriculture Western Australia
Locked Bag No 4
BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983

Phone: (08) 9368 3567

Fax: (08) 9474 1295

Email: rmanning@agric.wa.gov.au

Objective Provide 'first-time' analysis of amino acids of two important melliferous eucalyptus species to the beekeeping industry which are major contributors to the profitability of Western Australian honey and pollen producers.

Current Progress The project ran into problems regarding the collection of sufficient samples of pollen from Powderbark and Blackbutt (due to environmental effects). Both these species flower well every second year, but in this last season both failed to flower well.
Approval was given to include pollen analyses from Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and Karri (E. diversicolor) which were flowering at the time. The analyses have all been completed and are waiting on the delivery of Amino acid results for these species.
Pollen protein deficiencies have been found for Jarrah and the three flowering ecotypes of Wandoo. Redgum (Corymbia calophylla) and blackbutt (E. patens) have no protein deficiencies. Fatty acid and mineral analyses have proved to be interesting and may provide another insight into the ecology of bee diseases and nutritional requirement of European honeybees under Australian conditions.
The report is in the process of being compiled and should be completed on time.

Project Title Breeding hygienic disease resistant bees

RIRDC Project No: US-39A

Start Date: 1/07/96

Finish Date: 30/11/00

Researcher: Dr. Ben Oldroyd

Organisation: The University of Sydney
School of Biological Sciences
THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY NSW 2006

Phone: (02) 9351 7501

Fax: (02) 9351 4771

Email: boldroyd@bio.usyd.edu.au

Objectives
· To develop DNA markers for hygienic behaviour genes so that hygienic breeding stock may be rapidly and cheaply identified.
· To train a PhD student in honeybee molecular biology and to establich facilities and protocols that will allow genetic markers developed in other laboratories (eg for honey production) to be utilised by the Australian honeybee industry.
· To develop protocols for molecular analysis of other economic traits.

Current Progress We have developed a first class molecular genetics lab at Sydney University with significant expertise and experience in analysing samples of bee DNA. Keryn Wilkes (a Ph.D. student in the lab) has made excellent progress identifying DNA markers for hygienic behaviour (uncapping and removal of dead pupae by workers).
The collection of molecular data is complete and a comprehensive genetic map has been produced. Combined analysis of the behavioural and genetic data has identified five putative genetic markers for removal behaviour and six putative genetic markers for uncapping behaviour. Exhaustive analysis is continuing in order to more precisely identify markers and their relative level of influence over the uncapping and removal traits.
A field study on 32 colonies derived from various lines was carried out in conjunction with Mr. Linton Briggs between December 15-17, 1999. Samples of both drone and worker brood were taken from each of these colonies for testing of the candidate markers identified by our study. DNA is currently being extracted from these samples, along with others identified as either highly hygienic or non-hygienic in an earlier backcross experiment. The diagnostic power of the identified putative genetic markers will then be tested on these samples.

Project Title Eucalypt regrowth thinning trails to optimise leatherwood honey production

RIRDC Project No: FTA-1A

Start Date: 21/01/99

Finish Date: 30/06/03

Researcher: Ms. Frieda Heese

Organisation: Forestry Tasmania
3 Crozier Place
WARRANE TAS 7018

Phone: (03) 6244 3755

Fax: (03) 6244 3755

Email: frieda.heese@dier.tas.gov.au

Objectives
· To demonstrate that non-commercial thinning of eucalypt regrowth will enhance leatherwood regrowth at no extra cost.
· To establish a set of prescriptions for the timing and intensity of eucalypt regrowth thinning.
· To communicate main findings to the beekeeping and forestry industries.

Current Progress The 100-hectare research site, established in 1999, was pre-commercial thinned in January 2000, using a stem injecting process. Early results indicate that the stem injecting process was successful.
Analysis of the 10 research plots constructed last year, have found no flowering of the leatherwood.
The second research site was established in an area where Eucalypt regeneration was poor (or, naturally thinned forests). The leatherwood in these plots was more advanced in both flowering and height, than those in the other research sites, pre-commercial thinned forests.
In fact, analysis of regeneration forest for pre-commercial thinning, has found that in forests where Eucalypt regeneration is highest, there is little or no regeneration of leatherwood. Compared to areas where the regeneration of eucalypts is poor, the regeneration of leatherwood is significantly higher.

Outcomes The following documents were produced:
· Honeybee crop pollination services business and marketing strategies for apiarists and crop pollination associations.
· Honeybee crop pollination services draft code of practice for apiarists.
· Draft code of practice for the use of bee tubes.
· Honeybee crop pollination services contact list (database) for growers and apiarists.
· Sixteen pamphlets providing flow-charts and guidelines for effective pollination of specific crops.
· Seven papers on pollination including: principles of pollination; honeybees, their life cycle and habits; efficient use of honeybee crop pollination services; honeybee pollination of crops in greenhouses, small enclosures and under hail netting.
· Four posters and a set of 35 mm colour slides for use by apiarists.
Presentations on honeybee crop pollination services were delivered to meetings of the Northern Victorian Fruit Growers’ Association and the Crop Pollination Association.

Implications Growers and apiarists will have access to detailed user-friendly information about honeybee crop services and the benefits and use of bees for pollination. The publications will help to provide greater understanding of the special requirements of both apiarist and grower, relating to supply and use of pollination services.
The business and marketing strategies will assist apiarists who wish to establish a pollination service business. The draft Honeybee crop pollination services code of practice will assist crop pollinators establish appropriate standards and develop a greater degree of professionalism within the growing crop pollination service industry.

Publications Final Report for Project DAV-119A: "A communication and marketing strategy for honeybee crop pollination services."

Project Title Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in honey: levels of contamination and methods of removal

RIRDC Project No: CSA-9A

Start Date: 10/06/99

Finish Date: 15/07/00

Researcher: Dr. Steven M Colegate

Organisation: CSIRO Animal Health
Plant Toxins Unit
Private Bag 24
GEELONG VIC 3220

Phone: (03) 5227 5739

Fax: (03) 5227 5555

Email: steven.colegate@dah.csiro.au

Objectives
· Continuation of the analysis of honeys initiated in April 1999 to assist the industry in an assessment of the problem posed by pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA) contamination of honeys for the domestic and export markets.
· A concurrent investigation into the potential for removal of PA contaminants, which may yield an industry-friendly, economically viable
· procedure for removing PAs from contaminated honeys.

Current Progress Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), identified as being derived from Echium plantagineum (Salvation Jane) and Heliotropium spp. (purple top and common heliotrope), were detected in 19 of 20 honey samples provided for analysis. Only six of these samples were actually described as being sourced from a PA-containing plant such as Salvation Jane.
Several types of capture resin were trialed in various formats to investigate their potential for removal of PAs from honeys. The PAs could be removed (>95%) from the honeys using a batch mixing process that is compatible with current honey processing methods. However, the removal process adversely affects other qualities of the honey such as water content, acidity and mineral content. The effect on water content was minimised to acceptable levels by using specially prepared capture resins.
Selective blending of treated honeys ameliorated the effects on acidity and mineral content. These additional steps add cost to the process which, in addition to the cost of the capture resin, would tend to make the process economically non-viable. Regeneration and re-use of the resin (currently being investigated) has potential to lower this cost to a level as yet undetermined, but probably still too high for economic justification.
Other quality parameters potentially affected by the treatment have not yet been investigated.

Project Title The use of Australian honey in moist wound management

RIRDC Project No: DAQ-232A

Start Date: 1/07/97

Finish Date: 30/06/00

Researcher: Dr. Craig Davis

Organisation: Department of Primary Industries (Qld)
Centre for Food Technology
19 Hercules Street
HAMILTON QLD 4007

Phone: (07) 3406 8611

Fax: (07) 3406 8677

Email: davisck@dpi.qld.gov.au

Objective To develop a set of guidelines for the commercial production of honey as a therapeutic agent.

Current Progress The recent registration of Jellybush honey as a "Drug" with the Therapeutic Good Administration (TGA, the National drug registration body) has been the project highlight.
In December 1999, Capilano Honey Limited completed the registration of their product - "Medihoney" - which is pure, sterile Leptospermum honey packaged in a 50gm tube and promoted as a "high-potency antibacterial honey". The listing of this product (TGA# AUST L 69532) is the first of its kind in the world, and represents an acceptance of the therapeutic benefit of natural products by the TGA.
The routine screening of honeys from apiarists and processors has continued at the Centre for Food Technology where over 4000 honeys have now been screened. An area in Northern NSW has repeatedly produced the "active" honey. Recent testing has suggested that at least one further area with floral-derived activity may have been identified. It is likely that beekeepers will submit samples of honey from a wider range of geographical sites as the returns from the commercialisation of the "active" Leptospermum honey are further realised.
Beekeepers are now receiving a premium in excess of 10 times the traditional price for these Leptospermum honeys if they are identified as florally-"active".

Project Title Flavour quality assurance of Australian floral honeys by chemical fingerprinting

RIRDC Project No: UQ-67A

Start Date: 4/08/97

Finish Date: 31/10/00

Researcher: Dr. Bruce R D'Arcy

Organisation: The University of Queensland
School of Land and Food
Food Science and Technology
GATTON COLLEGE QLD 4345

Phone: (07) 5460 1384

Fax: (07) 5460 1171

Email: bd@burger.uqg.uq.edu.au

Objective To increase the accuracy of the flavour quality authentication of Australian floral (straightline) honeys by developing a commercially available quality assurance procedure based on chemical fingerprinting by 2000.

Current Progress A three-step procedure for authenticating the floral source of Australian floral (species-specific) honeys is being developed, together with the collection of chemical data on the volatile composition of samples of 16 Australian honey types.
Such data has been tabulated for samples of the following 12 honey types: yellow box, blue gum, leatherwood, red gum, jelly bush, yapunyah, clover, brush box, tea tree, mallee, Caley’s ironbark and crows ash. Analysis of spotted gum, stringybark, heath, and grey iron bark honeys is nearing completion.
The first step in the authentication procedure involves the extraction of natural honey volatiles. The second step involves gas chromatographic (GC) analysis of the honey extracts to quantify the volatiles, while gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used to identify these substances. This research has recently established a data bank of mass spectra and GC ‘chemical fingerprints’ of natural volatiles in Australian floral honeys. The third step in the authentication procedure involves multivariate statistical analysis of the chemical data.
So far, chemical data of samples of five honey types have been analysed using this method, with work in progress to include another 11 floral types. This analysis groups samples of each honey type, thus permitting floral source identification.

Project Title Improving the movement/use of liquid Australian honey within manufacturing processes

RIRDC Project No: UQ-84A

Start Date: 1/07/98

Finish Date: 30/11/01

Researcher: Dr. Bruce R D'Arcy

Organisation: The University of Queensland
School of Land and Food
Food Science and Technology
GATTON COLLEGE QLD 4345

Phone: (07) 5460 1384

Fax: (07) 5460 1171

Email: bd@burger.uqg.uq.edu.au

Objective To increase the inclusion of honey in manufacturing processes, particularly commercial baking operations, by developing an understanding of the physical properties and flow characteristics of honey, and by developing key technology for the movement of liquid Australian honey in a number of commercial processes by 2001.

Current Progress Viscosity work continued, with another eight varieties of unprocessed honey samples being analysed within the temperature ranges of 1 - 40^oC using a Brookfield viscometer and 10 - 70^oC using an Ares Rheometer. With these two studies and previous work, the temperature effect on honey viscosity was confirmed to be Newtonian for 14 varieties of honeys.
An Arrhenius viscosity model for these honeys has been developed and accepted for publication. Preliminary Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurement of the glass transition temperatures for samples of nine honey types is complete and is presently being related to their viscosities. Further work in this area is continuing. Additionally, the compositional analysis of a large number of honey samples for sugar and moisture content is complete. These chemical data will be correlated to previously collected data on crystallisation rates and viscosity behaviour.
In addition to the above work, an extensive DSC study was done to establish a procedure to analyse the degree of crystallisation of glucose in honey. This method was also tested on several creamed honey samples and was found applicable.
Finally, honey-pumping systems used by Australian honey packers have been identified, and a pilot scale trial is presently being undertaken.

Projects 1999/2000 – still to be contracted

The following project had funding approved in the 1999/2000 financial year, exchange of contract has not yet happened:

Natural resource database for the South Australian apiary industry (DEH-1A) Mr Peter Alexander
( (08) 8204 8764

New Projects –2000/2001

The following projects have been approved by RIRDC for commencement in the 2000/2001 year:

Device for finding queen bees in managed beehives (HBE00-01) Mr Alan Roberts

( (02) 6663 5224

Glycemic index of honey (HBE00-09) Dr Jayashree Arcot

((02) 9385 5360

Publications

Floral Resource Database for the NSW Apiary Industry
by Doug Somerville, RIRDC Publication No. 99/174, $15

Provides a clear database of the significant floral resources for the NSW apiary industry, including floral species, honey and pollen values, land tenure, location of sites, frequency of flowering and flowering period. Also provides information on hive numbers, nucleus colonies, yield per hive, total number of bee sites on various land tenures, persons employed and gross income distribution. 1999, 154pp

Australian Liquid Honey in Commercial Bakery Products
by Bruce D’Arcy, Nola Caffin, Bhesh Bhandari, Nicole Squires, Paul Fedorow, Darren MacKay, RIRDC Publication No. 99/145, $15

Honey has the potential to retard the staling of bread. This report examines the effect of Australian liquid honey on the functional properties of bread doughs and cake batters, including dough development and gelatinisation of batters and doughs, in addition to the effect of honey on the staling of bread. 1999, 145pp

Natural Resource Database for the Queensland Apiary Industry
by John Rhodes and Fraser Trueman, RIRDC Publication No. 99/43, $10

Details the development of a beekeeping resource database for the Queensland industry and includes data on the productivity and economic value of apiary sites, the most valuable and reliable honey flora, and areas of potential commercial production. 1999, 68pp

European Foulbrood – Determining Oxytetracycline Sensitivity and Diversity
by Michael Hornitzky and Steven Djordjevic, RIRDC Publication No. 99/20, $10

Oxytetracycline (OTC) has been the recommended treatment for European Foulbrood diseases (EFB) for the past 21 years. This research was designed to determine current sensitivity of the EFB causative organism Melissococcus pluton to OTC. 1999, 30pp

Impact of Commercial Honeybees on Flora and Fauna in Ngarkat Conservation Park
by David Paton, RIRDC Publication No. 99/15, $10

Addresses the issue of whether or not to allow commercial beekeepers access to major reserves and whether such access permanently damages the natural environment. Specifically looks at Ngarkat Conservation Park, South Australia. 1999, 33pp

Treating American Foulbrood – Development of a National Control Program
by Keith McIlvride, RIRDC Publication No. 98/144, $10

Outlines the findings and recommendations put forward by participants at a honeybee workshop in July 1998 for the development of suitable management programs to control and reduce the level of American Foulbrood Disease (AFB). 1998, 18pp

Bulk Honey Containers
by Graham Kleinschmidt, RIRDC Short Report No. 10, free

A short report on research which identifies production and transport procedures that might vary honey metal levels and adversely affect quality assurance certification and product image. Examines the metal related quality implications of current and alternative containers (stainless steel, zincalume, galvanised waxed and galvanised drums) as well as apiary procedures. 1997, 12pp

Strategic Planning and Action Meeting – for Honeybee Nutrition
by Graham Kleinschmidt, RIRDC Publication No. 98/128, $10

Findings of a workshop commissioned to explore ways and means to both upgrade current nutrition techniques and to expedite their transfer to a wider cross section of industry in advance of expected increased external pressures. 1998, 22pp

Beekeeping and Secure Access to Public Land
by Roderic Gill, RIRDC Publication No. 97/026, $10

Considers the access of beekeepers to forested areas under government control. Provides environmental and economic information on the debate and recommends a procedure for resource security arrangements. 1997, 58pp

Honeybee Research Report 1999
by RIRDC, Publication No. 99/61, free

Details honeybee RIRDC-funded research from July 1998 to June 1999 and lists projects beginning in the 1999-00 financial year. 1999, 40 pp

Honeybee Research Report 1998
by RIRDC, Publication No. 98/48, free

Details honeybee RIRDC-funded research from July 1997 to June 1998 and lists projects beginning in the 1998-99 financial year. 1998, 53 pp

Project Title	Introduction and early performance of queen bees - some factors affecting success
RIRDC Project No:	DAN-182A
Start Date:	1/09/99
Finish Date:	31/07/00
Researcher:	Mr. John Rhodes
Organisation:	NSW Department of Agriculture RMB 944 Calala Lane TAMWORTH NSW 2340
Phone:	(02) 6763 1206
Fax:	(02) 6763 1222
Email:	rhodesj@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objectives	· To determine whether the age of the queen bee at introduction influences introduction success. · To identify factors affecting sperm counts of sister queen bees, mated under the same mating conditions and to investigate relationships between low spem counts and queen failure following introduction. · To examine the effects of temperature and humidity during transport of queen bees on their introduction success.
Current Progress	Laboratory and field data collections were complete in March, 2000. The Final Report on the project has been completed to first draft stage. Queen bee survival rates at 14 days and 15 weeks after introduction were obtained for sister queen bees caught from mating nuclei at 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days of age. Ovariole numbers, sperm counts, Nosema disease status, as well as the number and amounts of mandibular gland pheromones present have been obtained for a separate group of sister queens examined at 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days of age. Temperatures, humidities, the number of hours in transit and the number of dead bees in each cage on arrival at their destination were obtained for 10 consignments of queen bees, following transport between the queen bee breeder and the honey producer’s apiary.

Project Title	Can the technique of 'shaking bees' and antibiotic therapy be used as a means of controlling American Foulbrood?
RIRDC Project No:	DAN-176A
Start Date:	1/12/98
Finish Date:	31/1/01
Researcher:	Mr. Michael Hornitzky
Organisation:	Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute Private Mail Bag 8 CAMDEN NSW 2570
Phone:	(02) 4640 6311
Fax:	(02) 4640 6400
Email:	michael.hornitzky@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objective	To determine whether the technique of shaking bees from hives with American foulbrood (AFB) onto foundation or irradiated hive equipment followed by treatment with oxytetracycline hydrochloride is an effective alternative to current control strategies.
Current Progress	Currently there are five cooperating beekeepers with 101 hives involved in this project. The number of treatment procedures has been reduced to three. These are: 1. "Shaking" bees onto foundation 2. "Shaking" bees onto irradiated material with one treatment of oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC) and 3. "Shaking" bees onto foundation with one treatment of OTC. The other three treatment procedures were eliminated, as they were considered impractical or unlikely to be successful from a commercial beekeeping stand point. Five hives from two cooperating beekeepers with 35 hives have become re-infected with American Foulbrood. There are three beekeepers with 66 hives where all treatments have been successful. The major losses of hives in these trials are from dead outs and absconding or loss of queen bees. Further hive examinations need to be carried out next spring, to confirm the success of these treatments. The project is expected to be completed on schedule.

Project Title	European Foulbrood - investigating control measures
RIRDC Project No:	DAV-157A
Start Date:	7/12/98
Finish Date:	30/06/02
Researcher:	Mr. Russell Goodman
Organisation:	Department of Natural Resources & Environment Institute for Horticultural Development Private Bag 15 SOUTH EAST MAIL CENTRE VIC 3176
Phone:	(03) 9210 9222
Fax:	(03) 9800 3521
Email:	russell.goodman@nre.vic.gov.au
Objectives	(a) To protect the apiary industry's continued access to domestic and export honey markets by reducing or eliminating the industry's dependence on oxtetracycline hydrochloride (OTC) for the control of the bacterial honeybee brood disease, European Foulbrood (EFB) (Melissococcus pluton). (b) To determine the efficacy of reduced doses of OTC and use of OTC extender patties for the control of EFB and to determine if these measures reduce or eliminate the occurrence of OTC residues in honey. (c) To identify and develop alternative, non-antibiotic measures for control of EFB by investigating, primarily, the effect of enhanced honeybee colony nutrition and changed pH of honeybee larval guts. (d) To obtain a greater understanding of active and latent infections of M. pluton and Paenibacillus alvei (a common secondary invader) in honeybee larvae and to develop new Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) methodologies for detection of M. pluton as a necessary prerequisite and support of the preceding aim (c)
Current Progress	Preliminary OTC dosage rates trial Forty-one hives infected with European foulbrood (EFB) were treated with various doses of OTC to determine their efficacy. Pre-and post treatment counts of diseased larvae were conducted 12, 22 and 41 days after treatment. OTC doses and minimum inhibitory concentration of OTC for M. pluton Field trials were conducted to determine if various doses of OTC applied to honeybee colonies of different sizes would provide honeybee larvae with sufficient medication to meet the minimum inhibitory concentration of OTC for M. pluton. Investigations were also conducted to the concentration of OTC in whole honeybee larvae and the mid-guts of larvae. Degradation of OTC in honey Studies on the degradation of OTC in honey continued throughout the year. Samples were taken on a monthly basis from honey extracted from hives treated with 1g active OTC and stored at ambient temperature. Samples were also obtained from six different floral honeys spiked with OTC and held at 22ºC and 35ºC. Epidemiology of M. pluton Ben McKee, research team member and PhD student, visited the Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, NSW, to obtain skills in Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques. The techniques were further developed, tested and shown to be specific for Melissoccus pluton the causal organism of EFB. Effect of nutrition on EFB A total of 110 hives were purchased and requeened in preparation for a major trial to commence in Autumn. A supplementary high protein cake was developed for feeding to hives belonging to one of the treatment groups of this trial.

Project Title	Guidelines for honeybee disease barrier systems and wax dipping sterilisation
RIRDC Project No:	DAV-167A
Start Date:	1/07/99
Finish Date:	10/06/00
Researcher:	Mr. Russell Goodman
Organisation:	Department of Natural Resources & Environment Institute for Horticultural Development Private Bag 15 SOUTH EAST MAIL CENTRE VIC 3176
Phone:	(03) 9210 9222
Fax:	(03) 9800 3521
Email:	russell.goodman@nre.vic.gov.au
Objective	To assist the apiary industry reduce and control the spread of the notifiable honeybee brood disease, American Foulbrood (AFB), and other diseases, by developing an extension manual of 'best practice' hive barrier management systems and hot wax dipping sterilisation techniques for use by Australian apiarists.
Current Progress	A literature search using the electronic webspirs (Internet) data bases, Agricola and CAB abstracts, was conducted to identify current trends in apiary disease barrier management and hot wax dipping sterilisation techniques used in other countries. Evaluation of current Australian industry practices has commenced. The principal investigator, Mr Russell Goodman, visited selected apiarists to document and photograph various methods of hot wax dipping of beehive components. Best practice and operator safety concerns were identified as important issues for inclusion in a draft manual that was nearing completion at the time of writing. Information on bee disease, barrier management systems, was sourced, with permission, from two South Australian apiarists, firstly by way of a comprehensive video and secondly from a printed presentation produced for the Victorian Apiarists’ Association Inc. 1999 annual conference. Compilation of an illustrated draft manual on barrier management has commenced.

Project Title	Production of a publication on honeybee nutrition in Australia - 'Fat bees/skinny bees'
RIRDC Project No:	DAN-186A
Start Date:	1/01/00
Finish Date:	31/10/02
Researcher:	Mr. Doug Somerville
Organisation:	NSW Department of Agriculture PO Box 389 GOULBURN NSW 2580
Phone:	(02) 4823 0619
Fax:	(02) 4822 3261
Email:	doug.somerville@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objective	To produce an extension publication on honeybee nutrition, incorporating research findings from past RIRDC projects, literature searches and anecdotal examples of applications in the Australian context in a format that will be readily understood and adopted by beekeepers.
Current Progress	Interviews with a few commercial beekeepers on their management strategies using protein and carbohydrate supplements have taken place. These include Warren Taylor (Australian Queen Bee Exporters) who is Australia’s largest exporter of package bees based in the central tablelands of NSW; Kevin and Glen Emmins, Mildura, Victoria; Leigh Duffield, South Australia; Geoff Smith, South Australia; John Fuss, South Australia; Graham Wagenfeller, South Australia; Ian and Shirley Stephens, Tasmania; and part interview with Stan Hughston, Wanaaring, NSW

Project Title	Export package bees - evaluating a lupin flour based feed for increased live bee production
RIRDC Project No:	DAW-75A
Start Date:	1/01/97
Finish Date:	30/04/01
Researcher:	Mr. Robert Manning
Organisation:	Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No 4 BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983
Phone:	(08) 9368 3567
Fax:	(08) 9474 1295
Email:	rmanning@agric.wa.gov.au
Objectives	· Develop a lupin flour feed that is more palatable than expeller soyflour and/or Torula yeast. · To enhance live bee production by developing a lupin based feed that is cost effective in comparison to other high protein feeds.
Current Progress	This project has been on 'hold' for a couple of years as the research apiary was destroyed under instructions from Agriculture WA veterinary officers following the finding of the exotic disease Chalkbrood. Currently the re-establishment of the apiary has been refunded and two thirds of the number of hives required for the experiment have been purchased from Agriculture WA funds. The rest are to be delivered soon. Procuring lupin flower has been difficult since the previous supplier no longer supplies lupin flour. When a few more technical issues have been solved, the experimental plan will be resubmitted to RIRDC for approval before the project recommences.

Project Title	Pollen analysis of Eucalyptus patens (Blackbutt), E. accedens (Powderbark) and E. wandoo (Winter Wandoo variety) in Western Australia
RIRDC Project No:	DAW-91A
Start Date:	1/07/98
Finish Date:	15/07/00
Researcher:	Mr. Robert Manning
Organisation:	Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No 4 BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983
Phone:	(08) 9368 3567
Fax:	(08) 9474 1295
Email:	rmanning@agric.wa.gov.au
Objective	Provide 'first-time' analysis of amino acids of two important melliferous eucalyptus species to the beekeeping industry which are major contributors to the profitability of Western Australian honey and pollen producers.
Current Progress	The project ran into problems regarding the collection of sufficient samples of pollen from Powderbark and Blackbutt (due to environmental effects). Both these species flower well every second year, but in this last season both failed to flower well. Approval was given to include pollen analyses from Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and Karri (E. diversicolor) which were flowering at the time. The analyses have all been completed and are waiting on the delivery of Amino acid results for these species. Pollen protein deficiencies have been found for Jarrah and the three flowering ecotypes of Wandoo. Redgum (Corymbia calophylla) and blackbutt (E. patens) have no protein deficiencies. Fatty acid and mineral analyses have proved to be interesting and may provide another insight into the ecology of bee diseases and nutritional requirement of European honeybees under Australian conditions. The report is in the process of being compiled and should be completed on time.

Project Title	Breeding hygienic disease resistant bees
RIRDC Project No:	US-39A
Start Date:	1/07/96
Finish Date:	30/11/00
Researcher:	Dr. Ben Oldroyd
Organisation:	The University of Sydney School of Biological Sciences THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY NSW 2006
Phone:	(02) 9351 7501
Fax:	(02) 9351 4771
Email:	boldroyd@bio.usyd.edu.au
Objectives	· To develop DNA markers for hygienic behaviour genes so that hygienic breeding stock may be rapidly and cheaply identified. · To train a PhD student in honeybee molecular biology and to establich facilities and protocols that will allow genetic markers developed in other laboratories (eg for honey production) to be utilised by the Australian honeybee industry. · To develop protocols for molecular analysis of other economic traits.
Current Progress	We have developed a first class molecular genetics lab at Sydney University with significant expertise and experience in analysing samples of bee DNA. Keryn Wilkes (a Ph.D. student in the lab) has made excellent progress identifying DNA markers for hygienic behaviour (uncapping and removal of dead pupae by workers). The collection of molecular data is complete and a comprehensive genetic map has been produced. Combined analysis of the behavioural and genetic data has identified five putative genetic markers for removal behaviour and six putative genetic markers for uncapping behaviour. Exhaustive analysis is continuing in order to more precisely identify markers and their relative level of influence over the uncapping and removal traits. A field study on 32 colonies derived from various lines was carried out in conjunction with Mr. Linton Briggs between December 15-17, 1999. Samples of both drone and worker brood were taken from each of these colonies for testing of the candidate markers identified by our study. DNA is currently being extracted from these samples, along with others identified as either highly hygienic or non-hygienic in an earlier backcross experiment. The diagnostic power of the identified putative genetic markers will then be tested on these samples.

Project Title	Eucalypt regrowth thinning trails to optimise leatherwood honey production
RIRDC Project No:	FTA-1A
Start Date:	21/01/99
Finish Date:	30/06/03
Researcher:	Ms. Frieda Heese
Organisation:	Forestry Tasmania 3 Crozier Place WARRANE TAS 7018
Phone:	(03) 6244 3755
Fax:	(03) 6244 3755
Email:	frieda.heese@dier.tas.gov.au
Objectives	· To demonstrate that non-commercial thinning of eucalypt regrowth will enhance leatherwood regrowth at no extra cost. · To establish a set of prescriptions for the timing and intensity of eucalypt regrowth thinning. · To communicate main findings to the beekeeping and forestry industries.
Current Progress	The 100-hectare research site, established in 1999, was pre-commercial thinned in January 2000, using a stem injecting process. Early results indicate that the stem injecting process was successful. Analysis of the 10 research plots constructed last year, have found no flowering of the leatherwood. The second research site was established in an area where Eucalypt regeneration was poor (or, naturally thinned forests). The leatherwood in these plots was more advanced in both flowering and height, than those in the other research sites, pre-commercial thinned forests. In fact, analysis of regeneration forest for pre-commercial thinning, has found that in forests where Eucalypt regeneration is highest, there is little or no regeneration of leatherwood. Compared to areas where the regeneration of eucalypts is poor, the regeneration of leatherwood is significantly higher.

Outcomes	The following documents were produced: · Honeybee crop pollination services business and marketing strategies for apiarists and crop pollination associations. · Honeybee crop pollination services draft code of practice for apiarists. · Draft code of practice for the use of bee tubes. · Honeybee crop pollination services contact list (database) for growers and apiarists. · Sixteen pamphlets providing flow-charts and guidelines for effective pollination of specific crops. · Seven papers on pollination including: principles of pollination; honeybees, their life cycle and habits; efficient use of honeybee crop pollination services; honeybee pollination of crops in greenhouses, small enclosures and under hail netting. · Four posters and a set of 35 mm colour slides for use by apiarists. Presentations on honeybee crop pollination services were delivered to meetings of the Northern Victorian Fruit Growers’ Association and the Crop Pollination Association.
Implications	Growers and apiarists will have access to detailed user-friendly information about honeybee crop services and the benefits and use of bees for pollination. The publications will help to provide greater understanding of the special requirements of both apiarist and grower, relating to supply and use of pollination services. The business and marketing strategies will assist apiarists who wish to establish a pollination service business. The draft Honeybee crop pollination services code of practice will assist crop pollinators establish appropriate standards and develop a greater degree of professionalism within the growing crop pollination service industry.
Publications	Final Report for Project DAV-119A: "A communication and marketing strategy for honeybee crop pollination services."

Project Title	Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in honey: levels of contamination and methods of removal
RIRDC Project No:	CSA-9A
Start Date:	10/06/99
Finish Date:	15/07/00
Researcher:	Dr. Steven M Colegate
Organisation:	CSIRO Animal Health Plant Toxins Unit Private Bag 24 GEELONG VIC 3220
Phone:	(03) 5227 5739
Fax:	(03) 5227 5555
Email:	steven.colegate@dah.csiro.au
Objectives	· Continuation of the analysis of honeys initiated in April 1999 to assist the industry in an assessment of the problem posed by pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA) contamination of honeys for the domestic and export markets. · A concurrent investigation into the potential for removal of PA contaminants, which may yield an industry-friendly, economically viable · procedure for removing PAs from contaminated honeys.
Current Progress	Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), identified as being derived from Echium plantagineum (Salvation Jane) and Heliotropium spp. (purple top and common heliotrope), were detected in 19 of 20 honey samples provided for analysis. Only six of these samples were actually described as being sourced from a PA-containing plant such as Salvation Jane. Several types of capture resin were trialed in various formats to investigate their potential for removal of PAs from honeys. The PAs could be removed (>95%) from the honeys using a batch mixing process that is compatible with current honey processing methods. However, the removal process adversely affects other qualities of the honey such as water content, acidity and mineral content. The effect on water content was minimised to acceptable levels by using specially prepared capture resins. Selective blending of treated honeys ameliorated the effects on acidity and mineral content. These additional steps add cost to the process which, in addition to the cost of the capture resin, would tend to make the process economically non-viable. Regeneration and re-use of the resin (currently being investigated) has potential to lower this cost to a level as yet undetermined, but probably still too high for economic justification. Other quality parameters potentially affected by the treatment have not yet been investigated.

Project Title	The use of Australian honey in moist wound management
RIRDC Project No:	DAQ-232A
Start Date:	1/07/97
Finish Date:	30/06/00
Researcher:	Dr. Craig Davis
Organisation:	Department of Primary Industries (Qld) Centre for Food Technology 19 Hercules Street HAMILTON QLD 4007
Phone:	(07) 3406 8611
Fax:	(07) 3406 8677
Email:	davisck@dpi.qld.gov.au
Objective	To develop a set of guidelines for the commercial production of honey as a therapeutic agent.
Current Progress	The recent registration of Jellybush honey as a "Drug" with the Therapeutic Good Administration (TGA, the National drug registration body) has been the project highlight. In December 1999, Capilano Honey Limited completed the registration of their product - "Medihoney" - which is pure, sterile Leptospermum honey packaged in a 50gm tube and promoted as a "high-potency antibacterial honey". The listing of this product (TGA# AUST L 69532) is the first of its kind in the world, and represents an acceptance of the therapeutic benefit of natural products by the TGA. The routine screening of honeys from apiarists and processors has continued at the Centre for Food Technology where over 4000 honeys have now been screened. An area in Northern NSW has repeatedly produced the "active" honey. Recent testing has suggested that at least one further area with floral-derived activity may have been identified. It is likely that beekeepers will submit samples of honey from a wider range of geographical sites as the returns from the commercialisation of the "active" Leptospermum honey are further realised. Beekeepers are now receiving a premium in excess of 10 times the traditional price for these Leptospermum honeys if they are identified as florally-"active".

Project Title	Flavour quality assurance of Australian floral honeys by chemical fingerprinting
RIRDC Project No:	UQ-67A
Start Date:	4/08/97
Finish Date:	31/10/00
Researcher:	Dr. Bruce R D'Arcy
Organisation:	The University of Queensland School of Land and Food Food Science and Technology GATTON COLLEGE QLD 4345
Phone:	(07) 5460 1384
Fax:	(07) 5460 1171
Email:	bd@burger.uqg.uq.edu.au
Objective	To increase the accuracy of the flavour quality authentication of Australian floral (straightline) honeys by developing a commercially available quality assurance procedure based on chemical fingerprinting by 2000.
Current Progress	A three-step procedure for authenticating the floral source of Australian floral (species-specific) honeys is being developed, together with the collection of chemical data on the volatile composition of samples of 16 Australian honey types. Such data has been tabulated for samples of the following 12 honey types: yellow box, blue gum, leatherwood, red gum, jelly bush, yapunyah, clover, brush box, tea tree, mallee, Caley’s ironbark and crows ash. Analysis of spotted gum, stringybark, heath, and grey iron bark honeys is nearing completion. The first step in the authentication procedure involves the extraction of natural honey volatiles. The second step involves gas chromatographic (GC) analysis of the honey extracts to quantify the volatiles, while gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used to identify these substances. This research has recently established a data bank of mass spectra and GC ‘chemical fingerprints’ of natural volatiles in Australian floral honeys. The third step in the authentication procedure involves multivariate statistical analysis of the chemical data. So far, chemical data of samples of five honey types have been analysed using this method, with work in progress to include another 11 floral types. This analysis groups samples of each honey type, thus permitting floral source identification.

Project Title	Improving the movement/use of liquid Australian honey within manufacturing processes
RIRDC Project No:	UQ-84A
Start Date:	1/07/98
Finish Date:	30/11/01
Researcher:	Dr. Bruce R D'Arcy
Organisation:	The University of Queensland School of Land and Food Food Science and Technology GATTON COLLEGE QLD 4345
Phone:	(07) 5460 1384
Fax:	(07) 5460 1171
Email:	bd@burger.uqg.uq.edu.au
Objective	To increase the inclusion of honey in manufacturing processes, particularly commercial baking operations, by developing an understanding of the physical properties and flow characteristics of honey, and by developing key technology for the movement of liquid Australian honey in a number of commercial processes by 2001.
Current Progress	Viscosity work continued, with another eight varieties of unprocessed honey samples being analysed within the temperature ranges of 1 - 40^oC using a Brookfield viscometer and 10 - 70^oC using an Ares Rheometer. With these two studies and previous work, the temperature effect on honey viscosity was confirmed to be Newtonian for 14 varieties of honeys. An Arrhenius viscosity model for these honeys has been developed and accepted for publication. Preliminary Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurement of the glass transition temperatures for samples of nine honey types is complete and is presently being related to their viscosities. Further work in this area is continuing. Additionally, the compositional analysis of a large number of honey samples for sugar and moisture content is complete. These chemical data will be correlated to previously collected data on crystallisation rates and viscosity behaviour. In addition to the above work, an extensive DSC study was done to establish a procedure to analyse the degree of crystallisation of glucose in honey. This method was also tested on several creamed honey samples and was found applicable. Finally, honey-pumping systems used by Australian honey packers have been identified, and a pilot scale trial is presently being undertaken.

Device for finding queen bees in managed beehives (HBE00-01)	Mr Alan Roberts
	( (02) 6663 5224

Glycemic index of honey (HBE00-09)	Dr Jayashree Arcot
	((02) 9385 5360

Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation

RIRDC Completed Projects in 1999-2000 & Research in Progress as at June 2000 BACK TO INDEX

Rural Industries
Research & Development Corporation

RIRDC Completed Projects in 1999-2000 & Research in Progress as at June 2000
BACK TO INDEX