RIRDC Completed Projects in 1999-2000 & Research in Progress as at June 2000

1.2 New Animal Products  -  Completed Projects
Project No.	Project Title	Researcher	Phone	Organisation
CST-5A	Commercial development of cartilage co-products from alternative production species	Dr Gregory Harper	(07) 3214 2441	CSIRO Tropical Agriculture
DAQ-218A	To develop an ecological and economically sustainable camel industry through an integrated national approach – Qld	Ms Browyn Warfield	(07) 4688 1251	Department of Primary Industries (Qld)
DAQ-229A	Electrical restraining, stunning and stimulation of crocodile	Mr Bernie Davis	(07) 4722 2649	Department of Primary Industries (Qld)
DAV-132A	Development of reproductive technology to allow increased productivity from cross breeding riverine and swamp buffalo	Dr Brendan Tatham	(02) 6030 4519	Department of Natural Resources & Environment
DAW-92A	Assessing potential for development of commercial camel industry in Western Australia	Ms Leah McCloy	(08) 9881 0222	Agriculture Western Australia
LSC-1A	The economic production of European Brown Hare (Genus Lupus)	Mr Scott Montgomery	(02) 4836 7240	Lepus (Southern Cross) and Associates
UF-2A	Neuroanatomical and behavioural consequences of de-clawing in commercially farmed emus	Dr Christine Lunam	(08) 8204 4704	Flinders University of South Australia
UJC-5A	An investigation of skin diseases in farmed crocodiles	Dr Gilbert Buenviaje Prof Phillip Summers	(07) 4781 4758	James Cook University
UMO-18A	Year round supply of Goat Milk	Dr Alexander Cameron	(03) 5286 1211	Monash University
UQ-77A	Potential for silkworm production in Australia	Dr John Dingle	(07) 5460 1250	The University of Queensland
UWA-39A	Development of reproductive technology for emu farming	Assoc Prof Graeme Martin	(08) 9380 2528	University of Western Australia
WMI-1A	Improving the quality of Australian crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) skins	Dr Graham Webb	(08) 8999 2355	Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd


 

Project Title	Commercial development of cartilage co-products from alternative production species
RIRDC Project No.:	CST-5A
Researcher:	Gregory S. Harper
Organisation:	CSIRO Tropical Agriculture Molecular Animal Genetics Centre Level 3, Gehrmann Laboratories University of Queensland St. Lucia, 4072
Phone:	(07) 3214 2441
Fax:	(07) 3214 2480
Objectives	· To support the development of a co-product stream from cartilage of crocodile, emu; ostrich; deer; camel and kangaroo. This will be achieved by developing a valuation system based on yield and anti-angiogenic activity reflecting the attributes driving demand for cartilage from other species. · To document concisely the yields of cartilage from six species and their respective efficacies in an anti-angiogenesis assay. · To characterise the cartilage from each of the six species in terms of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content so that cartilage extracts might have value in existing, mixed cartilage products
Background	At first glance, cartilage from alternative production species would appear to have many of the attributes and constituent biochemicals that have encouraged the growth of shark and bovine cartilage markets. Do alternative species have cartilages that provide either unique advantages or disadvantages to their use as substitutes for existing cartilage products? Can bioactivity be used as a basis for simple valuation of cartilages from each species?
Research	We obtained samples of cartilage from carcasses of six alternative production species (kangaroo, emu, ostrich, crocodile, deer and camel), from at least two anatomical sites in each case. The time taken to remove each cartilage sample was noted, as was the speed of the slaughter line. Cartilage was dried and milled to powders so that each could be compared directly. Samples were analysed biochemically and also tested in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane bioassay for anti-angiogenic efficacy.
Outcomes	Glycosaminoglycans were broadly distributed amongst the cartilages analysed, but were at very low concentrations in crocodile penis and calcified tissues. It is also likely that crocodile glycosaminoglycans are structurally different from those of ratites and mammals. The nasal septa of deer were found to be rich sources of glycosaminoglycans, as is known to be the case for bovids. The limitation with this tissue however is the difficulty of excising it from the head. The trace metal contents of each of these cartilages was tested and found to be within acceptable health ranges. Crocodile ischeum was found to be a rich and feasible source of anti-angiogenic activities, even though it was not rich in glycosaminoglycan. This questions the reliance on glycosaminoglycans as a measure of value. The Alcian Blue assay for glycosaminoglycans, whilst simple, needs to be interpreted with care, since crude tissue extracts contain cross-reacting substances

Implications

Given consistency of supply of animals, the most attractive sources are likely to be the scapulae of the mammalian species. If appropriate tools are were available in the abattoir, then nasal septa would be the next most appropriate sources. Despite the differences in biochemical content of the cartilages, species-of-origin is likely to be the major determinant of value in the current market. There is the potential to investigate and characterise the anti-angiogenic molecules from crocodile ischeum because these are likely to be novel

Publications

One scientific journal article will be generated from this work.

Project Title	To develop an ecological and economically sustainable camel industry through an integrated national approach – Qld
RIRDC Project No.:	DAQ-218A
Researcher:	Bronwyn Warfield
Organisation:	Department of Primary Industries PO Box 102 TOOWOOMBA QLD 4350
Phone:	(07) 4688 1251
Fax:	(07) 4688 1808
Objectives	· To determine the market size and characteristics of the domestic market for camel meat and develop a marketing plan for the industry, which will assist them to better meet the needs of the trade and consumers .
Background	There are approximately 200 000 camels in Australia — 100 000 in Western Australia, 50 000 in the Northern Territory and the remaining 50 000 in western Queensland and northern South Australia. They are of the Dromedary (one–hump) species. The Central Australian Camel Industry Association (CACIA) is the only organisation in Australia currently slaughtering and selling camel meat. It has been slaughtering around 300 camels per year since 1995, which represents approximately 49 tonnes of camel meat with an average wholesale value of $400 000.  These slaughter camels are from cattle stations in the Northern Territory; they are transported to the Strathalbyn abattoir (south–east of Adelaide) where they are killed and then boned out and packed by Strath Meats. The national distributor of camel meat is Wyuna Meats in South Australia, which sells direct to restaurants, butchers, supermarkets and manufacturers in South Australia and to wholesalers in Western Australia, New South Wales and Victoria
Research	Data and information were collected from existing literature and reports, and personal communication with government and industry representatives and CACIA. Wyuna Meats, the national distributor of camel meat, was interviewed, as well as each of the state wholesalers and various manufacturers and processors currently using camel meat

Outcomes

The outcome is a research report that contains a detailed analysis of the current camel meat market in Australia and the supply characteristics of the industry. The primary target market identified domestically for camel meat comprises tourists, Muslims and Territorians. The secondary target market is consumers of other game meats, and the intermediaries are trade customers including supermarket merchandise managers, in-store butchers and chefs. The focus of the industry–marketing plan is improving quality so that a consistently high quality product is delivered to the target market in the format it requires. Central to the development of the industry is producing and delivering camel meat that meets trade and consumer, expectations in terms of tenderness and fat content. There are also opportunities to develop a brand and communicate its attributes to the trade, with a view to becoming the preferred supplier and building confidence in the quality of the product being delivered. For a branding strategy to succeed a product of consistent quality must be available and the attributes of what the brand represents communicated to the trade. A key component of branding is providing customers with service in the form of ongoing advice and training, and building long-term relationships with key customers; these processes will in turn lead to a better understanding of what the customer wants

Implications

The research found the domestic market for camel meat is limited, however there are areas for improvement, which would assist the industry to expand the current market size


 
 

Project Title	Electrical restraining, stunning and stimulation of crocodile
RIRDC Project No.:	DAQ-229A
Researcher:	Mr Bernie Davis
Organisation:	Department of Primary Industries PO Box 1085 TOWNSVILLE QLD 4810
Phone:	(07) 4722 2649
Fax:	(07) 4778 2970
Objectives	· To develop reliable, safe and effective electrical stunning equipment for the restraining of crocodiles to protect handlers and minimise stress to animals · To evaluate whether electrical stimulation of carcases improves meat quality
Background	Australia’s commercial crocodile industry has been established using Indopacific crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) which produce a "classic" hide highly prized by manufacturers. Initially, the Australian industry relied on foreign technology for its development. Australia now has its own crocodile research program and the crocodile stunning equipment and meat research work are part this and will assist the industry to be more internationally competitive. Crocodile farms often need to catch and move animals of all sizes from hatchlings to large breeders. Hatchlings are normally caught by hand and the authors are not advocating stunning for this group. In addition people in organisations like the Environmental Protection Agency are charged with capturing wild animals perceived to be a public threat. This can be quite dangerous and stunning equipment would be very useful in this situation
Research	Catching crocodiles is a dangerous business and people in Australia and overseas have been injured and killed pursuing this undertaking. Australian crocodile producers are looking for a safe way to capture farmed crocodiles with minimum stress to both people and animals. The research program developed stunning equipment which was compact, portable, reliable, safe, affordable and effective without damaging animals. It also evaluated applying electrical stimulus (110V) to freshly killed carcases for periods of up to 2 minutes to try to tenderise the meat
Outcomes	Stunning equipment was successfully developed for grower, young breeder and rogue categories. It is efficient because it allows animals to be handled with minimum risk and does not damage animals. It reduces the human fatigue problem when many animals have to be caught in commercial situations. It also allows an animal to be caught, examined and released to recover if the skin is damaged instead of being prematurely harvested. A pilot study on electrical stimulation of carcases indicated that this process may improve meat quality, and pointed to areas of further work
Implications	The Australian crocodile industry now has affordable stunning equipment available to it. It is efficient because it can be handled by one person and is readily transportable. It is effective because it can immobilise crocodiles at least 3.0 metres in length for up to fifteen minutes without damaging them.

Publications

This research project will be made available to the Australian crocodile industry through the Department of Primary Industries’ Crocodile Research and Development Bulletin. It has also been video taped for release.

Project Title	Development of reproductive technology to allow increased productivity from cross breeding riverine and swamp buffalo
RIRDC Project No.:	DAV-132A
Researcher:	Dr Brendan Tatham
Organisation:	Agriculture Victoria RMB 1145 RUTHERGLEN VIC 3685
Phone:	(02) 6030 4519
Fax:	(02) 6030 4505
Objectives	· Develop artificial insemination, embryo transfer and in vitro fertilisation techniques for the Australia buffalo industry. · Facilitate communication within the ABI to facilitate the adoption of new techniques and develop a defined industry structure and supply chain
Background	The Australian Buffalo Industry (ABI) is undergoing the transition from a harvest to a farm enterprise base. To address productivity issues the ABI is attempting to increase production efficiency and increase profitability and market specification compliance by increasing carcase weight using genetic improvement. Initial studies have shown that cross breeding swamp and riverine buffalo result in a 43% and 29.3% improvement in growth rate and carcase weight. This increase comes from heterosis between the two species and has provided an advance superior to that expected from a structured breeding program. The limited availability of riverine buffalo and a long-term expectation for the implementation of a structured genetic evaluation and breeding program has provided the demand for artificial breeding techniques to be developed on behalf of the ABI
Research	Investigations into the techniques that comprise artificial insemination (AI), multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) and in vitro fertilisation (IVF) in cattle were assessed in a series of trials. These trials determined the suitability of equipment and modifications required for implementation in buffalo
Outcomes	This project has provided the ABI with the following techniques that are available commercially and are be subject to market forces.   · Semen collection and cryopreservation · Oestrus synchronisation and artificial insemination · Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer and cryopreservation · In vitro embryo production and buffalo- cattle hybrid embryos
Implications	The artificial breeding techniques developed in this project allow the use of cross breeding of buffalo to increase production efficiency through hybrid vigour. These techniques also provide the basic framework for a future structured breeding program to facilitate the utilisation and distribution of superior buffalo genetics through the Australia farmed buffalo herd. This will provide continued genetic gain and increased production of buffalo meat that is required so that market specifications can be profitably achieved

Project Title	Assessing potential for development of commercial camel industry in Western Australia
RIRDC Project No.:	DAW-92A
Researcher:	Leah McCloy
Organisation:	Agriculture Western Australia, Doney Street, Narrrogin WA 10 Doney Street NARROGIN WA 6312
Phone:	(08) 98810222
Objectives	The objectives of this project followed a previous project and were to: · Continue the development of the camel industry in Western Australia through a camel industry steering committee which would provide direction as the industry evolved. · Develop greater knowledge of the costs and processes associated with camel farming in Western Australia to develop the industry further · Assist in the development of research projects for camels and work closely with colleagues across Australia working with camels · Identify and develop research to enable the industry to survive in the long term
Background	In 1993 an aerial survey of central Australia indicated the total feral camel population could be as high as 200,000. It is estimated that 50% of this population is located with the remote pastoral or desert regions of Western Australia. Within Western Australian camels are declared vermin. At present, they are periodically culled but no use is made of the carcase apart from occasional sale for pet meat. Agriculture Western Australia investigated the potential for development of a sustainable livestock industry utilising existing herds of feral camels within Western Australia. This was a joint initiative between Agriculture Western Australia, the Northern Territory Department of Primary Industries and Queensland DPI together with the Central Australian Camel Industry Association (CACIA) and the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC).
Research	Camels in Western Australia are classified as feral making development of an industry difficult. The project investigated the current restrictions on camels with regard to their management and transport on pastoral leases and in the agricultural areas. A full analysis was undertaken of the current restrictions. An approach was made the Agricultural Protection Board to have camels removed from the feral classification but this failed. Recommendations were made to change this in the future. Key export markets for Australian camel products were identified in the Middle East and Africa. An examination of the potential for live shipping to these areas was made. The costs associated with processing camels in Western Australia were evaluated through simulated slaughter of camels. Impediments to regular processing of camels were discussed, including limited numbers of animals and changes required to the processing facilities.

Outcomes

As part of the project a camel steering committee was established to drive the industry in WA. The steering committee helped identify the problems facing the industry and began to plan for the industry as it evolves into the future. The steering committee evolved during the project. An economic cost of production for camels in Western Australia was developed to help determine the costs associated with exporting camels and camel meat. Key camel markets were identified for future analysis. A pilot slaughter of camels was planned within the project. This developed a cost for low levels of camels being slaughtered and examined the challenges facing the industry. The requirements for managing and transporting camels in Western Australia were discussed in depth and draft guidelines for managing camels were made.

Implications

Camels have a place in pastoral and agricultural Australia. They are highly adapted to the Australian environment and can graze effectively with cattle. In order to develop further however key markets will need to be identified and developed. Initial work on this has been initiated, but to increase the confidence to invest in the industry, there will need to be much greater knowledge and confidence. The existing legislation for camels in Western Australia is prohibitive for industry development. These will need to be changed as the industry develops. An effective producer base will be able to drive these changes.


 
 

Project Title	The economic production of European Brown Hare (Genus Lupus)
RIRDC Project No.:	LSC-1A
Researcher:	Lynelle Tume, Scott Montgomery
Organisation:	Lepus (Southern Cross) and Associates "Kimbe Cottage" GRABBEN GULLEN NSW 2583
Phone:	(02) 4836 7240
Fax:	(02) 4836 7230
Objectives	· Identification of key factors likely to impact on commercial farming of hares in Australia; analysis of economic considerations and development of an economic model; estimation of current domestic and export market size for hare, and potential for growth in these and other new markets; analysis of results to indicate technical feasibility, economic viability and market sustainability
Background	Although classified as an exotic pest, the hare has presented no problems to date. Numbers remain low due to low reproductive yields, vulnerability to predators and competition from large numbers of rabbits. The major hare meat market is Europe where it is almost extinct due mainly to European Brown Hare virus (similar to Rabbit Calici Disease). The market demand is met largely by the import of wild shot hare from Argentina and Chile, where numbers are also declining. Australia’s hares are free of this disease and both wild rabbit and predator numbers are decreasing. This study investigates the potential for live capture, breeding and grow out to market required size
Research	Desk research including extensive literature review of marketing, zoological reproductive and animal behavioural science publications was undertaken. Market research included both in-market research in the European game markets and telephone interviews with processors, wholesalers and distributors in the domestic market. Economic analysis was performed using assumptions made as a result of consultation with experts in these fields and using a discounted cash flow analysis method
Outcomes	Although hare breeding and farming appears to be technically possible as demonstrated by such activities, particularly in Italy, the time required to overcome reproductive difficulties, stress and handling problems is likely to be unjustifiably long. The need to focus on producing meat animals at a price competitive with wild hare prices would require achievement of critical mass, which is not considered possible in a cost effective time frame. Italian hare farming is focused on producing young hare for release back into the wild and for sale to game and hunting reserves, and in both cases high prices are paid for young hares without the need to feed and grow to adult meat size
Implications	While there is some potential for further research and development to eliminate some of the reproductive difficulties, and to establish appropriate handling and transport methods, farming for hare meat is not likely to be profitable in the short or medium term. However, if such study was undertaken by suitable wildlife and zoological experts, there could be potential profit in establishing a supply of embryos or live young hares with excellent disease free status for the European Wildlife and Ecology programs


 
 

Project Title	Neuroanatomical and behavioural consequences of de-clawing in commerically farmed emus
RIRDC Project No.:	UF-2A
Researcher:	Dr Christine Lunam
Organisation:	Flinders University of South Australia Department of Anatomy & Histology GPO Box 2100 ADELAIDE SA 5001
Phone:	(08) 8204 4704
Fax:	(08) 8277 0085
Objectives	· To provide the emu industry with sound scientific data as well as any welfare implications of de-clawing and to recommend either its incorporation or exclusion from the Code of Practice for the Husbandry of Captive Emus by assessing the effects of de-clawing on the development of potentially painful neromas, on gait and on behaviour.
Background	Declawing is performed to alleviate scarring of the skin from healed wounds inflicted by the claws during aggressive behaviours of the emus, and to reduce the risk of injury to handlers, particularly during transport of the emus. Thus, the benefits of declawing are economic, preventing an annual loss to the industry of $5 million from damaged skins, improved worker safety and improved animal husbandry by protecting emus from inflicting injury upon themselves. A major concern is that the declawing procedure itself may cause unacceptable levels of discomfort and pain to the emus. To ensure permanent removal of the claw, the distal portion of each toe is removed at the last joint. Severed nerves resulting from the removal of the claw and surrounding tissue may heal abnormally. Inflammation and abnormal nerves may cause acute pain as well as long-term generated from extensive chaotic nerve tangles, known as traumatic-neuromas.
Research	Emu chicks were declawed soon after hatch and reared on two commercial emu farms in South Australia. The effects of declawing on gait were assessed by analyses of slow motion video recordings of walking and footprint impressions of clawed emus compared to that of declawed emus. The effect of declawing on behaviour was determined by viewing videotapes of clawed versus declawed emus filmed at a commercial emu farm in Waikerie. Toes for histological assessment, in particular for the presence or absence of neuromas, were obtained at slaughter from two commercial abattoirs in South Australia. All studies were conducted on adult emus.
Outcomes	It is recommended emus be declawed according to the procedure published by the Western Australian Department of Agriculture. That is, emus are declawed soon after hatch using a hot blade beak-trimming machine, leaving part of the distal phalanx intact. The absence of both inflammation and extensive neuromas in the declawed toes suggests that the emus do not suffer either acute or chronic pain. The data suggests that the alteration in gait after declawing is a response to the altered weight bearing capacity of the toes, rather than as a result of acute pain inflicted on the toes during walking. The behavioural data suggests that declawing does not compromise the locomotor ability of emus and has the benefit of improving social interaction during rearing reducing sterotype behaviour and aggression.

Implications

This work has contributed significantly to the Emu Industry by establishing declawing as a creditable practice. Declawing will avert loss of $5,000,000 annually to the Industry be reducing the amount of scarring on the skins from wounds inflicted during aggressive behaviours. Reducing skin damage is essential for the production of A-grade skins for export quality demanded by the world market. Declawing of the emus markedly improves the safety of handlers, particularly during transport and at the time of slaughter.


 
 

Project Title	An investigation of skin diseases in farmed crocodiles
RIRDC Project No.:	UJC-5A
Researcher:	Professor Phil Summers, Assoc/Prof Robert Hirst, Dr Gilbert Buenviajc
Organisation:	Australian Institute of Tropical Veterinary and Animal Science James Cook University TOWNSVILLE QLD 4811
Phone:	(07) 4781 4758
Fax:	(07) 4779 1526
Objectives	· To identify the important skin diseases of farmed crocodiles in Australia, to identify and characterise the microbiological cause of the most important skin disease and develop strategies for the control and prevention of skin diseases
Background	The major focus on crocodile farming is the production of high quality skins to supply the expanding market for high quality leather. The value of skins is downgraded if there are blemished on the skin that have occurred because of diseases of the skin. As crocodile farming is an emerging industry, there is a paucity of knowledge on the causes, prevention, control and treatment of skin diseases of intensively farmed crocodiles. This research project sought to identify the important skin diseases in farmed crocodiles in Australia.
Research	Skin lesions were examined from farmed crocodiles and a diagnosis of each lesion made based on this information, the microbiological cause of the most important skin disease was identified and the characteristics of the organism defined. Transmission studies in young crocodiles showed that the isolated organism was indeed the cause of disease. The ability to produce the disease experimentally was then used to design a series of experiments to determine methods for the treatment and control of skin diseases.
Outcomes	Five specific skin diseases were identified but the most common was dermatophilosis (‘brown spot’) disease. The causative bacteria of dermatophilosis was shown to be different to other known bacteria and a new species Dermatophilosis crocodyli sp nov is proposed. The most effective method of treatment was the immersion of animals in water containing 1 ppm of copper sulphate.
Implications	This project has identified the important causes of skin diseases of farmed crocodiles and shown that the diseases can be treated and controlled using simple, cheap methods. Consequently, skin wastage will be reduced leading to improved profitability of crocodile farms.
Publications	Buenviaje GN, Hirst RG, Ladds PW and Millan JM 1997, Isolation of Dermatophilus sp from skin lesions in farmed crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus). Australian Veterinary Journal 75: 365-367 Buenviaje GN, Ladds PW and Martin Y 1998, Pathology of skin diseases in crocodiles. Australian Veterinary Journal 76: 357-363 Buenviaje GN, Ladds PW, Hirst RG, Summers PM and Millan JM 1998, Attempted transmission of dermatophilosis in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus). Australian Veterinary Journal 76: 495-496


 
 

Project Title	Year round supply of Goat Milk
RIRDC Project No.:	UMO-18A
Researcher:	Dr Alexander Cameron
Organisation:	Institute of Reproduction and Development Monash University 246 Clayton Rd CLAYTON VIC 3168
Phone:	03 5286 1211
Fax:	03 5286 1379
Objectives	· To overcome the highly seasonal pattern of goat milk production by developing a nutritional regimen capable of supporting lactation at all times of the year, and developing protocols for extending the normally highly seasonal pattern of reproduction in dairy goats. The effects of manipulating daylength on milk production were also investigated
Background	Goat milk production is highly seasonal; for example at Meredith dairy production in June 1995 was less than one quarter of that in December. Yet relatively uniform year round supply is needed, because high value goat milk manufactures such as yoghurt and fresh curd cheeses tend to have short shelf lives. Factors considered likely to contribute to the seasonal pattern of production included nutrition, as the quantity and quality of feed on offer has a similar seasonal pattern: reproduction, which is seasonal in goats, with the tendency to give birth in early spring, and photoperiod, because short daylength, as found in winter, had been shown to suppress milk production in a breed of dairy sheep.
Research	In October, when pasture quality and quantity were at a maximum, housed goats fed both whole wheat and silage yielded as much milk as goats offered pasture and wheat, implying silage based diets could overcome nutritional constraints to milk yield.  Ovulatory cycles usually only occur in dairy goats in autumn and winter, but in this project the breeding season was advanced to early December by first isolating the does from bucks and then introducing them. Protocols were refined to include the introduction of several oestrus does (achieved using exogenous hormones) at the same time as the bucks, and treating the does with progesterone prior to the introduction of bucks. Thus 75% of joined does became pregnant following joining in early January. A series of experiments led to the conclusion that photoperiod was not of great significance in determining milk yield.
Outcomes	In June 1999, milk production at Meredith dairy represented 60% of that obtained in the previous December.
Implications	The nutritional constraint to uniform year round milk production has been removed. The breeding season has been extended by alternating periods of isolation and exposure of does to bucks, but further work is required to ensure this can be used as a predictable management tool. Further work is also required to develop protocols for the use of synthetic hormones to advance the breeding season to October


 

Project Title	Potential for silkworm production in Australia
RIRDC Project No.:	UQ-77A
Researcher:	Dr John Gordon Dingle
Organisation:	The University of Queensland  School of Animal Studies GATTON QLD 4343
Phone:	(07) 5460 1251
Fax:	(07) 5460 1444
Objectives	· Report on the feasibility of commercial silkworm production in Australia based on investigations of silkworm industries in other countries
Background	Approximately 50,000 tonnes of silk worth $1500 million are produced each year in the world. World production is decreasing but world demand is increasing so an opportunity exists for Australia to enter the silk trade either independently or in association with another country. Australia grows mulberry trees, the silkworms’ food, and has stocks of silkworms adapted to our climate, but they are not produced on an industrial basis and are only kept as a hobby at present. This study investigates how the production can be geared up to be commercially competitive by looking at overseas production methods and the world silk trade. Silkworms are ecofriendly, produce reusable wastes, present no risks to the environment and offer an attractive method of diversifying farm production which can be undertaken by all age groups.
Research	Background reading and analysis of world silk exports and silk imports was undertaken. Mulberry cultivation, silkworm rearing, silk reeling and silk fabric making were investigated overseas during a six week training program.
Outcomes	A progress report gave details of world silk trade trends. The final report provides information about a number of supporting reports prepared during the project. A report, titled ‘Silk production in southern India’, was written based on interviews and discussions with the heads of 15 research laboratories at the Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute at Mysore, India. A series of web pages, title ‘Silk Information’ has been prepared for presentation on the internet. A video, titled ‘Sericulture in India’ has been prepared showing moriculture, sericulture and silk processing techniques.
Implications	Opportunities exist for Australia to commercialise silk production and enter the world silk trade. An understanding of the complexities of moriculture, sericulture and silk processing has been obtained and can be used to promote the concept of silk production in Australia, guide farmers in producing high quality silkworm feed and silk, and establish a sericulture research centre and a silk market monitoring unit to undertake research, development and training.
Publications	Dingle, JG (2000) Silk production in southern India, School of Animal Studies, UQ Dingle, JG (2000) Silk information: Webpages available at www. Animal.uq.edu.au Dingle, JG (2000) Sericulture in India; video, School of Animal Studies, UQ


 
 

Project Title	Development of reproductive technology for emu farming
RIRDC Project No.:	UWA-39A
Researcher:	Dr Irek Malecki and Prof Graeme Martin
Organisation:	Faculty of Agriculture (Animal Science) University of Western Australia NEDLANDS WA 6907
Phone:	(08) 9380 2528
Fax:	(08) 9380 1040
Objectives	· To determine the capacity of emus to produce sperm · To develop protocols for preservation of emu semen · To develop methods of artificial insemination for the emu industry
Background	The emu is being farmed for the production of leather, meat and oil, but the future development of the industry is limited unless the efficiency of production is improved and genetic progress accelerated. Currently, emus are mostly bred in monogamous pairs which requires the retention of excessive males in the flock – birds that are not otherwise productive yet consume feed and capital resources that could be used to manage more females and therefore produce more eggs and growing chicks. In addition, monogamy arrests genetic improvement. Artificial insemination technology has allowed other industries to develop highly efficient lines for specific products or markets and is also an alternative to natural mating. This project establishes a basis for development of reproductive technology for the emu industry.
Research	The effect of season on the quantity of semen and spermatozoa produced by emus was investigated. To develop the emu semen diluent the, effect of poultry diluents (Lake’s, BPSE, Phosphate and NaCI-TES), storage temperature 94, 20, 39°C) and dilution (1:2, 1:4, 1:8) on sperm survival were first tested. Then, using our knowledge of the concentrations of major inorganic ions in emu seminal plasma, we modified Lake’s diluent to formulate new diluents (UWA-E1, UWA-E2 and UWA-E3) and tested the survival os sperm at 20°C. The optimal dose of spermatozoa for AI was investigated by inseminating emu females with 120, 200 or 400 million sperm. Finally, the best cryoprotectant, its optimal concentration, cooling/freezing and thawing rates was investigated. Semen was diluted with diluent and cryoprotectant and subject to various cooling/freezing rates before being plunged into liquid nitrogen.
Outcomes	The production of semen and spermatozoa is very seasonal and lasts for only 6 months. This has a major effect on the availability of spermatozoa for artificial insemination. Emu semen can be stored in Lake’s diluent at either 4 or 20°C for up to 6 hours without the loss of viability. Storage in the newly developed emu diluents should result in more live spermatozoa. Our diluents (UWA-E1, UWA-E2 and UWA-E3) maintained more viable spermatozoa that any other diluent which could be achieved by increasing the concentration of potassium and reducing sodium in the diluent. Emu spermatozoa can be frozen in liquid nitrogen. They have low susceptibility to cold shock and a slow cooling/freezing rate is most efficient. About 40% of viable spermatozoa is recovered following freezing. Deposition of spermatozoa in the female oviduct (AI) can be successful and efficient if there is good cooperation between the female and the inseminator. The insemination technique can be learned and used, and little intervention in the cloaca is need because the non-speculum technique has also proven to have potential. The emu female needs 120 million of fresh spermatozoa to maintain her fertility for 10 days. An elite male producing average ejaculates could be used to fertilise 32 females every 10 days, or up to 320 females in a season.
Implications	The production of spermatozoa, even though it is affected by season, could be very effectively used in artificial breeding programs for the emu. Emu farming can already benefit from the current techniques for semen collection, sperm storage, preservation and artificial insemination, and thus begin selection programs. By introducing reproductive technology, the emu industry could now make use of the massive reservoir of elite genes and genetic diversity of the emus. The artificial insemination can substitute for natural mating and greatly reduce the male to female ratio, saving on feed costs and capital resources, which can then be used to manage more females and therefore produce more eggs and growing chicks. However, there is still a lot of room for development. The emu diluent is yet to be finalised. The prediction of the number of emu females that can be inseminated with stored or cryopreserved spermatozoa can not be made. Even though, the number of live spermatozoa is high following storage of cryopreservation these numbers can overestimate the actual number of spermatozoa with full fertilising potential. The most accurate estimate can be given by carrying fertility trials or by assessing the fertilising ability of spermatozoa with the sperm-egg interaction assay.


 
 

Project Title	Improving the quality of Australian crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) skins
RIRDC Project No.:	WMI-1A
Researcher:	Charlie Manolis, Grahame Webb, Ken Richardson
Organisation:	Wildlife Management International PO Box 530 SANDERSON NT 0813
Phone:	(08) 8922 4500
Fax:	(08) 8947 0678
Objectives	To describe the morphological structure of the skin of farmed C porosus. 2. To determine the problems associated with skin quality as perceived by skin buyers, tanners and product manufacturers. 3. To develop assessment criteria, based on skin structure (sterology), that can describe the quality (value) of a skin to the industry. 4. To describe in captive c. porosus: - the embryological development of the skin (incubation effects) - the development of skin structure with age and size - the extent of natural variation in skin pattern  - the level of heritability of skin structure and pattern. 5. To compare the structure of the skin of wild c. porosus (considered to have the highest quality) with that of farmed c. porosus raised under a variety of husbandry regimes.
Background	Crocodile farms with Crocodylus porosus occur in a number of countries. With increasing numbers of classic crocodile skins on the international market over the last 5-10 years, the standard of grading is now very strict. Wild crocodile skins are thought to be of better quality than farmed skins, but buyers and tanners are largely ignorant of the morphological basis for such comparisons. Some aspects of quality, such as physical damage, are easy to identify and solve, but the potential effects of the captive raising environment on skin structure are unknown. Understanding the development of the skin may be fundamental to our understanding of the effects of different factors on it.
Research	Mean scale row count was correlated to incubation temperature, with increasing temperature giving higher counts. The scale count of the male parent was positively related to scale row count of his progeny; there was no relationship with the female’s scale count. The sensitive period during embryonic development occurred between 10 and 30 days, but varied between low and high temperatures. Embryonic development of the skin was described and quantified, with four stages of development being identified. Problems associated with skin quality, as perceived by skin buyers, tanners and product manufacturers were assessed. General development of the skin of juvenile and subadult crocodiles was described. Four patterns of dermal architecture were identified from skin and different parts of the body.
Outcomes	Most objectives were met, particularly with regard to the development of the skin and effects of incubation and genetic factors on it.

Implications

The number of scale rows can be manipulated by incubation temperature. In addition, the genetic influence (from the male) was identified, and through selection of breeding stock and varying incubation temperature, skins with higher scale rows may be produced. This would give Australia skins an edge over competitors with more ‘variable’ skins.

Publications

Richardson KC, Park JY, Webb GJW and Manolis SC (2000c). A comparison of the skin histology of embryonic and hatchling Saltwater and Australian Freshwater Crocodiles. In Crocodilian Biology and Evolution, ed. By G.C. Grigg. Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton. (in press). Richardson KC, Park JY, Webb GJW and Manolis SC (2000a). Skin development in embryonic and hatchling crocodiles, II. Saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. (submitted manuscript). Richardson KC, Park JY, Webb GJW and Manolis SC (2000b). Skin development in embryonic and hatchling crocodiles, II. Australian Freshwater crocodile, Crocodylus johnstoni. (submitted manuscript).

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