RIRDC Completed Projects in 2000-2001 & Research in Progress as at June 2001

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3.4 Rice - Completed Projects
Project No	Project Title	Researcher	Phone	Organisation

Varietal improvement & pure seeds maintenance

BRE-1A	Quality rice for North Asia	Tony Blakeney	(02) 9427 1449	BRI Australia Ltd
DAN-78A	Selection for improved rice seedling vigour	Laurie Lewin	(02) 6951 2611	NSW Agriculture
DAN-80A	Rice grain dimension by image analysis	Laurie Lewin	(02) 6951 2611	NSW Agriculture

Crop establishment

UQ-91A

Agronomic and molecular aspects of osmoprotectant application and cold tolerance in rice

Dr. Naidu Bodapati

(07) 3365 2289

The University of Queensland

Crop protection

UCS-16A	Biology of arrowhead (Sagittaria montevidensis)	Professor Jim Pratley	(02) 6933 2864	Charles Sturt University
UCS-25A	Determining the extent of herbicide resistance in the rice growing regions of southern Australia	Professor Jim Pratley	(02) 6933 2864	Charles Sturt University

Sustainable farming systems

DAN-161A

Identification and management of soil acidification in irrigated farming systems of southern NSW

H.G. Beecher

(02) 6951 2725

NSW Agriculture

Crop establishment
 

Project Title:	Quality rice for North Asia
RIRDC Project No.:	BRE-1A
Researcher:	Tony Blakeney*1, Laurie Lewin2 and Russell Reinke2 *now Cereal Solutions: phone (02) 9427 1449
Organisation:	1BRI Australia Ltd 2NSW Agriculture PO Box 7 PMB  North Ryde NSW 1670 Yanco NSW 2703
Phone:	(02) 9888 9600 (02) 6951 2611
Fax:	(02) 9888 5821 (02) 6951 2533
Email:	Laurie.Lewin@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objectives	· To study and describe quality criteria that define premium quality rice in North Asian rice markets and to develop quality evaluation procedures to facilitate early generation quality selection. · To select improved rice cultivars with high quality for North Asian markets.
Background	North Asian rice consumers are very discerning and demand unique quality characteristics. A single variety, Koshihikari, dominates the Japanese market, for example, because it has "best" quality. There is significant potential to market rice in North Asia but proper definition of quality is required so that appropriate cultivars are developed to facilitate access to the markets. This project aimed to define quality and to develop suitable cultivars. This project was also supported by the McCaughey Trust.
Research	There was a multi-faceted approach that defined quality on the basis of physical appearance, viscosity analysis and NIR taste value. The project also used alternative rapid techniques such as introduction, backcrossing and rapid generation advance to produce appropriate new cultivars. Two visiting scientists assisted with definition of quality and introduction of appropriate germplasm.
Outcomes	Quality requirement for North Asian rice markets was defined in terms of grain shape and size, chalkiness value and viscosity profiles. An important determinant of quality was objectively determined (NIR) Taste Value. This was linked to degree of milling and protein content in addition to texture measurement. A new cultivar was released in 1999 to produce rice for North Asian markets. This cultivar, 'Opus', combined the high yield potential of traditional NSW cultivars with grain quality approaching that of Koshihikari, the most popular variety in Japan.
Implications	The quality tests developed as a component of this project have been incorporated into the NSW rice breeding program and should lead to appropriate varietal releases in future. The cultivar 'Opus', released as a result of this project was produced on 3,700 ha (2.8%) of the NSW rice area in 1999/2000. It has replaced a substantial portion of the Koshihikari area and this trend is continuing for the 2000/2001 rice crop. Taste Value is a robust indicator of quality for North Asian markets. It is influenced by many factors, particularly amylose content, protein content and degree of milling. These factors can be targeted when segregating product for high value North Asian markets. The contacts made with Japanese scientists will continue to provide value in facilitating information flow and varietal introduction.
Publications	Ohtsubo, Ken'ichi. 1998. Rice based convenience foods. In: Blakeney, A.B. and O'Brien, L. Editors: Pacific People and Their Food. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul. pp 25-36. Quality Rice for North Asia, RIRDC Research Report No. 01/42

Project Title:	Selection for improved rice seedling vigour
RIRDC Project No.:	DAN-78A
Researcher:	Laurie Lewin
Organisation:	NSW Agriculture Yanco Agricultural Institute PMB Yanco NSW 2703
Phone:	(02) 6951 2611
Fax:	(02) 6951 2533
Email:	Laurie.Lewin@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objectives	· Incorporate improved seedling vigour into adapted, productive and high yielding rice cultivars of medium and long grain types. · Study the inheritance pattern of improved vigour and its relationship with grain and plant characters
Background	The rice seedling establishment phase is a vulnerable period in the NSW rice life cycle. Seedling establishment problems can affect more than 50% crops and can cause complete failure of some crops. The problems have been attributed to cold, water depth, insects, disease, algae and birds. Most problems could be avoided, however, if more vigorous varieties were grown. There are few varieties with greater vigour than NSW cultivars in the cold conditions prevailing in NSW during the establishment period. Some cultivars, particularly those from Eastern Europe, are more vigorous, but these do not have the agronomic or quality characteristics required for production in NSW. While improved seedling vigour is very important, it is also essential that agronomic or quality acceptability be maintained in vigorous varieties.
Research	NSW cultivars Jarrah (medium grain) and Langi (long grain) were crossed with Eastern European cultivars, Hungarian No. 1, Omirt 39 and Banat 725. Some lines were multiplied by single seed descent (SSD) while others were backcrossed to the recurrent NSW cultivar. Selection for seedling vigour was by the slant board technique. Inheritance analysis was carried out on the SSD and backcross populations while field measurements were made on vigour vs seed weight, maturity and plant height.
Outcomes	Selection by slant board technique in the F2 generation was not related to seedling vigour of F4 lines in the field but selection in the F3 generation was significantly related to vigour. This was expected as the F3 generation was less affected by hybrid vigour. There was no relationship between seedling vigour and seed weight or final plant height but there was a negative correlation between vigour and maturity. The heritability of slant board vigour as measured by parent/offspring regression was significant but generally around 50%. Thirty seven varieties were identified to have vigour exceeding Amaroo and approaching that of Hungarian No 1, the vigorous check variety. An initial round of selection was successful in selecting more vigorous lines. These had better agronomic and quality performance than the donor parents but were not acceptable as cultivars. These lines were re-crossed and included in the general rice improvement program.
Implications	Selection for seedling vigour can be carried out using slant boards but progress from selection is likely to be slow. There was no relationship between seed weight and either slant board vigour or field vigour so it is not possible to select on seed size. Selecting for increased seedling vigour is likely to also select for early maturity but not for final plant height. It is recommended that the slant board technique be included as a screening process within the NSW rice improvement program and that the best lines from this project be incorporated into the general crossing program.


 

Project Title:	Rice grain dimension by image analysis
RIRDC Project No.:	DAN-80A
Researcher:	Tony Blakeney*, Janelle Reece, Laurie Lewin and Russell Reinke *now Cereal Solutions: phone 02 9427 1449
Organisation:	NSW Agriculture Yanco Agricultural Institute PMB Yanco NSW 2703
Phone:	(02) 6951 2611
Fax:	(02) 6951 2533
Email:	Laurie.Lewin@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objectives	· To adapt an off-the-shelf image analysis system, usually used for histology, to measure rice grain dimensions. · To adapt the system to measure chalk in white rice · To verify that the system can provide data on rice selections · To use this information to develop routine methods of grain dimension and chalk analysis.
Background	The Australian rice industry has been very successful in developing high quality rice to meet specific market niches. In order to maintain quality standards, however, the rice industry requested that the breeding program make every effort to produce more uniformly sized grains with inherently stable dimensions. Prior to this project, dimensions had been subjectively estimated by eye in early generations and microscopic measurement was a slow and tedious process at later stages of the selection process. This was clearly unsatisfactory as it allowed little selection pressure for both absolute dimension and variability.
Research	Two commercial image analysis systems were tested for this work. Preliminary analysis showed the JAVA system, developed by Jandel Scientific in the USA was the best system for grain dimensions but that the MD30plus system, developed at Adelaide Hospital and marketed through Leica Australia was probably better for chalk analysis. The project evaluated the systems, developed methods for their use and strategies for incorporation into the rice breeding program selection process.
Outcomes	· Grain dimensions:- Brown rice is used because it is less subject to error than milled rice. Suction is used to present 50 brown rice grains to image analysis. A series of filters, plus calibration of the JAVA system is used to calculate length (mm); standard deviation for length; width (mm) and standard deviation for width. · Chalkiness:- A single layer of milled grains (approximately 700) is lit from below. Using the MD30plus image analysis system, the area of chalk is expressed as a percentage of total grain surface area. The program also returns the number of chalky area to discriminate samples with few very chalky grains from those with general but low level chalk.
Implications	The length/width and chalk estimations are now used as regular screening tools in breeding program evaluation. Grain from all harvested plots (around 3000 samples per year) is screened in both systems. Image analysis was used in selecting Opus, based on grain size and shape and freedom from chalk. This variety has been recognised for its quality and for the fact that it closely resembles premium Japanese quality cultivars. Both image analysis systems have been important in raising the objectivity of testing within the breeding program. As both tests are relatively rapid, it has also increased the number of lines to be tested and enhanced the chance of success. Both image analysis systems (but particularly chalkiness testing) have been used in calibration of systems now used within the rice industry to objectively test grain attributes.
Publications	Martin, M., Hart, K.R., Blakeney, A.B. and Lewin, L.G.1997. Image analysis to assess dimensions of rice grains. In: Tann, A.W., Ross, A.S. and Wrigley, C.W. eds. Cereals 97, Proceedings of the 47th Cereal Chemistry Conference, Perth, 1997. pp 332-335. Reece, J.E. and Blakeney, A.B. 1993. Image analysis for the assessment of chalk in milled rice. In: Proceedings of the 43rd Australian Cereal Chemistry Conference. Wrigley, C.W. ed. Coogee. pp 21-24.

Project Title:	Agronomic and molecular aspects of osmoprotectant application and cold tolerance in rice
RIRDC Project No.:	UQ-91A
Researchers:	Dr. Naidu Bodapati & Assoc. Prof. Shu Fukai
Organisation:	The University of Queensland School of Land and Food ST LUCIA QLD 4072
Phone:	(07) 3365 2289
Fax:	(07) 3365 1188
Email:	n.bodapati@mailbox.uq.edu.au
Objectives	1. To develop a seed treatment method using glycinebetaine or spermine (osmoprotectants) to increase seedling establishment at low temperature. 2. To examine if foliar application of these solutes would increase yield of cold stress affected rice plants under laboratory and field conditions. 3. To obtain molecular and physiological information on the role of osmoprotectants to increase cold tolerance and this may form a basis to genetically engineer rice plant to produce osmoprotectants naturally.
Background	About 10% of Australian rice fields show seedling establishment failure due to low temperature and this represents an annual loss of $30 million. Low temperature during flowering causes some damage almost every year, but once in 3-4 years Australian rice industry loses about 25% of production (eg. 1996), representing $75 million.  In a previous RIRDC funded 1 year project (RIC97-12), we found spermine benefiting seedling vigour. At reproductive stage, both spermine and glycinebetaine offered significant cold tolerance by reducing sterility in Amaroo and Doongarra.
Research	We examined the effect of spermine and betaine on seedling vigour in the field (1999-00) and the need for split application of osmoprotectants at low temperature in the laboratory. We studied the physiological basis of high seedling vigour observed in some rice cultivars by the effects of externally applied gibberellic acid (GA3) and varietal differences in polyamine accumulation. The effect of osmoprotectant solutes was examined on pollen sterility and yield attributes in controlled growth cabinets maintaining normal and low temperature regimes. Field trials were conducted with two cultivars in 2000/2001 to examine the effects foliar application of osmoprotectants on cold induced sterility.
Outcomes	Field trials indicated that spermine increased shoot growth of seedlings by about 15%. Seed soaking in 0.25 mM spermine for two days prior to sowing + watering with 0.125 mM spermine solution was more effective than just seed soaking alone with 0.25 mM spermine. This suggests that slow release seed coating may be more beneficial . Foliar application of glycinebetaine @ 0.5 mM almost doubled the number of engorged pollen in Cv. Amaroo. Soaking seed in 8 mM gibberellic acid (GA3) increased the seedling vigour at low temperature by about 40%, presumably by activating a-amylase. We made another very significant finding that seedling vigour at low temperature was significantly correlated (r=0.92) with endogenous and natural accumulation of spermine in the leaves.
Implications	Two findings: (a) Spermine correlating with seedling cold tolerance, and (b) The role of GA3 in seedling cold tolerance are novel from the plant breeding point of view. These two physiological findings are related and are known to play the most important role in the seedling development under normal conditions. It appears that the ability of cultivars to retain the activity of these two processes at low temperature will determine cold tolerance in rice. A thorough genetic and physiological study has been approved by RIRDC and will be carriedout in 2001-03. If the genetic control is identified, then molecular markers could be developed for these processes to enhance the speed of breeding. Large scale foliar application trials of spermine and glycinebetaine, and seed treatment with GA3 should be conducted with the co-operation of commercial farmers.

Crop protection
 

Project Title		Biology of arrowhead (Sagittaria montevidensis)
RIRDC Project No.:		UCS-16A
Researcher:		Professor Jim Pratley
Organisation:		Charles Sturt University Locked Bag 588 WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2678
Phone:		(02) 6933 2864
Fax:		(02) 6933 2868
Email:		jpratley@csu.edu.au
Objectives		To reduce the threat of herbicide resistance in arrowhead by understanding the biology of the weed in order to develop integrated management strategies.
Background		The dependence on herbicides for arrowhead control has led to the problem of herbicide resistance. Almost all rice is aerially sown, limiting the chemical options for controlling arrowhead populations, and increasing the risk of herbicide resistance. In environmental terms it is undesirable for farmers to be introducing into the environment herbicides that do not work, or have impaired efficiency. In addition it is important to preserve the life of safe and effective chemicals for as long as possible, through seeking other options which can be used in an integrated weed management (IWM) approach. This project, therefore, will provide the opportunity to gather the requisite knowledge to enable IWM strategies to be developed
Research		Research was conducted into the biology of arrowhead under the following headings: - the distribution of arrowhead - herbicide resistance in arrowhead - seed production and dispersal - germination requirements of arrowhead - management factors and arrowhead
Outcomes		Distribution studies confirmed that arrowhead is the fourth most widespread weed in rice in NSW, occurring in all of the rice growing regions, but at higher levels in the MIA and CIA, where continuous rice growing has led to a buildup in the soil seed bank. Herbicide resistance studies confirmed that there are many populations of arrowhead in rice in NSW that are resistant to Londax® (bensulfuron), whilst no resistance was detected to MCPA or Taipan® (benzofenap). Resistance to Londax occurred in a greater proportion of samples from the CIA than the MIA. Studies of the phasic development of arrowhead indicate that it develops quickly after germination and can set seed very early in the rice growing season and continue to do so throughout the season. Seed production studies indicated that arrowhead is a prolific producer of seeds, able to produce many thousands of seed per plant. These seeds than have the ability to float for some time after being shed, allowing dispersal. The seeds are highly viable as soon as they are shed from the plant and remain viable in the soil for at least three years and possibly longer. Harvesting equipment does not tend to take in arrowhead seed, but it can still be transported stuck to the vehicle. These seed need favourable conditions in which to germinate. Studies here have shown that arrowhead seeds require light to germinate, making those on the soil surface the most likely to do so. Germination is high below 10ºC, at around 25%, and above around 11.5ºC germination rises to almost 80% of seeds. Unlike starfruit (see PhD study by Richard Graham), arrowhead does not require ethylene (a hormone produced when dry soil becomes rapidly inundated) to germinate, however its germination is greatly enhanced by the presence of free standing water. Trials here showed that arrowhead can reduce the yield of rice by up to 75% if completely unchecked. It is therefore important to manage arrowhead well, particularly in light of the resistance to Londax. Studies into the management of stubble to help control arrowhead proved unsuccessful, indicating that arrowhead is not affected by these strategies. Both early and late additions of nitrogen improved the performance of arrowhead, with more nitrogen producing better arrowhead growth. Draining of rice bays before rice sowing, when arrowhead seedlings were very young, proved a useful technique. In this case, a flush of water was added, to promote arrowhead germination. This was followed by specific periods of water removal, during which very young arrowhead plants died. One week removal was enough to kill very young plants. A delay in the water removal until the arrowhead plants were more mature proved unsuccessful.
Implications	This project has confirmed the extent of the arrowhead problem in NSW rice, and the extent of the herbicide resistance problem. It also confirms that some of the current management practices may be contributing to the arrowhead problem. It also has shown that there are a number of aspects of the biology of arrowhead that are important in its spread as a weed. The response of arrowhead to light, temperature and inundation indicate that conditions are highly suitable for its growth at the beginning of the rice season. This can be used in two ways. The information from the draining experiment, summarised in the outcomes section, above, could be used to develop a draining programme that would disadvantage arrowhead. As an offshoot of such a programme, the response of arrowhead to a flush of water could be utilised, by encouraging arrowhead to grow with a flush of water, before killing it with a dose of knockdown herbicide. The results from this project improve our knowledge of arrowhead, on of the most problematic weeds in the rice growing system. This knowledge can now be used to develop an integrated weed management (IWM) programme for arrowhead.
Publications		Flower, G.E., Pratley, J.E. and Slater, P.D. (1999) Early desiccation as a tool for arrowhead control. In 12th Australian Weeds Conference, Hobart Tasmania, pp543-546

Project Title:	Determining the extent of herbicide resistance in the rice growing regions of southern Australia
RIRDC Project No.:	UCS-25A
Researcher:	Jim Pratley, John Broster, Giles Flower and Ragini Flower
Organisation:	Charles Sturt University Farrer Centre Locked Bag 588 Wagga Wagga NSW 2678
Phone:	(02) 6933 2864
Fax:	(02) 6933 2868
Email:	jpratley@csu.edu.au
Objectives	To determine base line data on the extent of herbicide resistance in dirty dora (Cyperus difformis), starfruit (Damosonium minus), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), arrowhead (Sagittaria monevidensis) in the Murrumbidgee (MIA), Coleambally (CIA) and Murray Valley rice growing regions.
Background	Herbicide resistance in Australia’s rice industry is a major threat to the sustainability of the industry. Weed control in the rice industry has been dependent on only a few herbicides and significant levels of resistance are emerging to one of the major herbicides (Londax®). Resistant weed populations have the potential to: significantly reduce the area suitable for rice growing; increase the use of yield damaging herbicides; and increase the possibility of MCPA herbicide drift damaging neighbouring crops e.g. grapes. The environmental effects of resistance include: putting ineffective herbicides into the farming system; the use of increased rates of recommended herbicides and the use of more applications of selective chemicals to control weeds.
Research	Weed seed samples were collected from across the rice-growing regions of southern New South Wales. These samples were tested against the relevant range of commercial herbicides for their control to establish benchmark levels of resistance for each weed / herbicide combination. For the four weed species tested, a total of seven herbicides were used. The herbicides used were bensulfuron (Londax®), thiobencarb (Saturn®), benzofenap (Taipan®), MCPA, propanil (Ronacil®), clomazone (Command® or Magister®) and molinate (Ordram®).
Outcomes	Of all the different herbicides evaluated in this trial only bensulfuron exhibited high levels of resistance. With the exception of MCPA and propanil no accessions were classed as resistant for any of the other herbicides used in this project. The possible resistance to MCPA and propanil needs to be confirmed with further testing. The three weed species in this survey controlled by bensulfuron exhibited high levels of resistance.Approximately 50% of dirty dora, 40% of starfruit and 35% of arrowhead accessions were classed as resistant to this herbicide.
Implications	The high level of resistance to bensulfuron in the three major weeds it controls is a major concern for the rice industry. No other herbicide has the same spectrum of weeds controlled, with the same window of application or lack of constraints on application. Resistance to this herbicide will result in other less effective, harder to use herbicides being necessary to control these weeds with and decrease in the profitability of the rice industry as a whole.
Publications	Herbicide resistance in the rice growing regions of southern Australia, RIRDC Research Report No. 01/40

Sustainable farming systems
 

Project Title:	Identification and management of soil acidification in irrigated farming systems of southern NSW
RIRDC Project No.:	DAN-161A
Researcher:	H.G. Beecher and B.A. Lake
Organisation:	NSW Agriculture Yanco Agricultural Institute YANCO NSW 2703
Phone:	(02) 6951 2725
Fax:	(02) 6955 7580
Email:	geoff.beecher@agric.nsw.gov.au
Objectives	· To reverse of soil acidification before subsoils become acid which will maintain a wide choice of crop species. · To have increased knowledge of topsoil and subsoil acidity in irrigated land of southern NSW  · To have improved understanding of the impact of soil management (eg landforming) and crop management (cropping sequence, irrigation management and fertiliser use) on soil acidification mechanisms under irrigation. · To have increased farmer awareness of best practices and systems for soil acidity management that are compatible with irrigation cropping systems.
Background	Increasing soil acidity causes poor plant growth and yield leading to reduced water and land use efficiency as well as reducing the range of crop species that can successfully be grown within the irrigated cropping system. Irrigation cropping systems are under increasing pressure to deliver increased water use efficiency so as to reduce groundwater accessions. Soil acidity is a confounding factor in achieving this outcome by reducing output and decreasing cropping options
Research	Identify the relative importance of the different acidifying processes within irrigated cropping systems particularly rice based systems. Identify the potential impact of soil acidity changes on irrigated cropping system options. · Determine the extent and degree of soil acidity by a study of existing literature, collation of existing soil test results from all sources, an extensive program of soil sampling / analysis of both top soil and subsoil for soil pH and soluble Aluminium content and map these data onto existing digitised soil maps. In particular examine soil pH changes in the subsoil and pH differences due to soil type and cropping system. · Adapt existing approaches (eg LIME-IT) to evaluate/ estimate the effect of various cropping systems, amelioration strategies, soil types on soil acidity changes and on soluble Aluminium.
Outcomes	Significant numbers of sites investigated have soil ph 0-10cm of below in CaCl2. Although the major irrigated crop rice is unaffected by soil pH levels under flooded conditions
Implications	This project has shown that soil pH levels in irrigated lands of southern NSW are falling significantly. The project has also shown that soil pH deeper into the soil profile are showing signs of decreasing as well. The work provides a significant number of reference sites against which soil acidity management can be judged in the future.
Publications	Geoff Beecher (1998). Identifying and managing soil acidification in irrigated farming systems. IREC Farmers Newsletter LA No 152 pp. 72-3. Beecher HG and Lake B (1999).RIRDC Project Dan 161A Identification and management of soil acidification in irrigated farming systems of southern NSW IREC Farmers Newsletter No 154 Large Area pp. 63-4.