Horses - RIRDC Completed Projects in 2003-2004 & Research in Progress as at June 2003

3.5 HORSES - COMPLETED PROJECTS
PROJECT No	PROJECT TITLE	RESEARCHER	PHONE	ORGANISATION
2. Industry Development and Development of Equine Research Infrastructure in Australia
RSC-1A	Evaluation of an independent confirmatory test for total plasma carbon dioxide	Allen Stenhouse	(02) 8344 5000	Australian Racing Forensic Laboratory
3. Respiratory Diseases-Improving the Respiratory Health of Horses
US-108A	Prospective longitudinal study of disease on equine stud farms	Dr. James Gilkerson	(03) 8344 9969	University of Melbourne,Hunter Valley Equine Research Centre
5. Lameness and Limb Injury-Developing More Effective Methods for Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment
UQ-86A	Genetic Approaches to Developmental Orthapaedic Disease (DOD) in Horses	Dr Richard Bramdpm	(07) 3363 3647	University of Queensland
6. Exercise and Metabolic Disease-Optimising Fitness and Reducing Training Related Disease
EQP-1A	Development of an "on board" fitness monitoring system for the thoroughbred racing industry	A/Prof. David Evans	(02) 9351 2474	Equitronics Pty Ltd
7. Reducing Reproductive Failure in Mares and Stallions and Establishing More Effective Treatments for Diseases of Foals
HVE-1A	Further development of vaccines against rhodococcus equi infection in foals	Dr. James Gilkerson	(03) 8344 9969	University of Melbourne, Hunter Valley Equine Research Centre
IMV-4A	Prevalence of radiological abnormalities in Thoroughbred yearlings	Dr. Michael Heuzenroeder	(08) 8222 3275	Institute of Medical & Veterinary Science
UMA-17A	Evaluating equine immune responses to new EHV-1 vaccine candidates	A/Prof. Millar Whalley	(02) 9850 8200	Macquarie University
8. Improving Racetracks and Working Surfaces for Horses
PTP-19	8TH Australian Racecourse Managers Conference, 2003	Arthur Stubbs	(03) 9844 1135	Primary Tasks Pty Ltd
9. Other
PTP-20A	Racetrack design and performance database	Arthur Stubbs	(03) 9844 1135	Primary Tasks Pty Ltd
UF-10A	Monitoring Falls During Eventing — Establishment of a national surveillance system to monitor injury to riders and horses from falls during the cross-country phase of eventing in Australia.	Dr. Raymond Cripps	(08) 8374 0970	Flinders University of South Australia
UMU-28A	Role of latent equine herpesvirus infections in respiratory disease	Prof Graham Wilcox	(08) 9360 2448	Murdoch Unviersity

2. Industry Development and Development of Equine Research Infrastructure in Australia

Project Title:	Evaluation of an independent confirmatory test for total plasma carbon dioxide
RIRDC Project No.:	RSC-1A
Researcher:	Allen Stenhouse
Organisation:	Australian Racing Forensic Laboratory
Phone:	02 8344 5000
Fax:	02 9662 6107
Email:	astenhouse@racingnsw.com.au
Objectives	To study the feasibility of a new test to confirm the detection of the use of alkalising agents. The new test will employ carbon isotope ratio mass spectrometry and measure the isotope ratio of ¹²C to ¹³C (the normalised measurement is defined as d¹³C). This measurement will be used to differentiate between exogenous and endogenous CO₂ in blood and possibly urine. This test will be additional to and independent of the currently used total CO₂ concentration defined in the rules of racing and pacing.
Background	The d¹³C value for CO₂liberated from normal horse blood is approximately -24 and the CO₂liberated from sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) is -5.1.Hence it is expected that when a horse is administered NaHCO₃ the d¹³C value of CO₂ liberated from the blood would become less negative. A preliminary study confirmed this hypothesis in two horses with the blood CO₂ d¹³C value rising from –25.2 to –20.6 after the administration of 500 g of NaHCO₃to the horses.
Research	Sample collection was optimised by measuring d¹³C differences in blood collected in lithium heparin tubes, plain tubes and clot activator tubes. Different fill volumes were investigated. Methods of measuring of CO₂ from blood tested were by sampling the head space above the blood and by the addition of acid to the blood. The method chosen was characterised for precision and accuracy. Using the optimum sampling and measuring methods the following research was conducted: ·1 Three administration trials (500g of NaHCO₃) were conducted on different horses with the blood, urine and mane hair analysed for d¹³C. ·2 48 blood samples collected pre-race from competing thoroughbred horses were analysed for d¹³C. ·3 An attempt to account for diet was made by measuring the d¹³C and d¹⁵N of mane hair and dried blood.

Outcomes

5 to 7 mL of blood collected in a plain 10 mL tube, stored at 4^oC and with measurement occurring within 7 days of collection was found to be the optimum sampling procedure.

The optimum method of measurement was obtained by injecting some of the head space from the collection tube into a modified elemental analyser attached to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (EA-IRMS). The precision was quite acceptable (1? = 0.03). Mane hair (1 cm closest to the root) and dried blood (100 µL) were analysed by standard EA-IRMS, this enabled the simultaneous measurement of d^{13C
and d15N.}

^{Pre-administration samples
in two of the administration trials showed high d13C values indicating
a significant influence from the diet of the animals. Results from the
third administration trial, where diet was carefully controlled, gave similar
results to trial carried out prior to this investigation.}

^{The results from the
48 samples taken pre-race are as follows:}

^Treatment

^{d13C CO2 headspace}

^{d13C CO2 dried blood}

^{d13C CO2 mane hair}

^{d15N dried blood}

^{d15N mane hair}

^Average

^-23.83

^-22.46

^-20.71

^5.91

^5.74

^{Std Dev}

^1.45

^0.81

^0.94

^0.86

^0.75

^{The dietary effect noticed
in the two administration trials could be accounted for by using a measurement}? (defined as d^{13C CO2 headspace minus d13C CO2 dried blood). However
the comparison of the measurement of total CO₂ (TCO₂)
concentration and}? of the samples collected on race day was not well correlated. The ? value suggested too many false positives.

Implications

Whilst the blood concentration of TCO₂ returns to normal within 24hours of a substantial dose of NaHCO₃ to a horse, the d¹³C takes longer to return to normal. Hence diet can significantly influence the d¹³C value. ? values do go a good way towards accounting for dietary influences but more work is required before this can be used in a legal or quasi-legal situation.

3. Respiratory Diseases-Improving the Respiratory Health of Horses

Project Title: Prospective longitudinal study of disease on equine stud farms

RIRDC Project No.: US-108A

Researcher: James Gilkerson

Organisation: The University of Melbourne, The Hunter Valley Equine Research Centre.

Phone: (03) 8344 9969

Fax: (03) 8344 7374

Email: jrgilk@unimelb.edu.au

Objectives To establish a disease surveillance system for the thoroughbred breeding industry and so determine an accurate estimate of the frequency and cost of various diseases to the industry.

Background The thoroughbred breeding industry is an important contributor to Australia’s GDP and is a major employer and export industry. Despite the importance of this industry to the rural economy the cost of endemic disease in the horse industry was not known, and there was no surveillance of the breeding population to establish a baseline frequency of disease. This surveillance system provides the basis for objective, industry based data to determine the frequency and cost of disease and thus gives participating farms the capacity to benchmark amongst their peers.

Research Computer software has been developed that facilitates extraction of population and disease data from the office computers of participating farms. This data is uploaded via the internet to the central database from which twice yearly reports are produced for the farms. The system was established and tested using data collected from 10 stud farms in the Hunter Valley of NSW during the 2001 and 2002 breeding season. Data has been collected during the 2003 season and is currently being analysed. Farms from Queensland and Victoria have recently been recruited into the database with an aim of producing a national surveillance system in the near future..

Outcomes Data on the incidence, prevalence and cost of a number of important diseases has been collected and collated from the participating farms.

Implications This project has implications for the thoroughbred breeding industry specifically and for research into equine disease in general. The data generated by this surveillance system will provide the means for individual farms to benchmark the impact of various diseases on their farm with their peers. This system will also provide the breeding industry with the data to lobby the pharmaceutical industry for the development or importation of products to treat or prevent important diseases. Finally, the results from this project will allow the thoroughbred industry to identify their research priorities and will also provide an objective basis upon which to assess the impact of the resultant research programmes.

Publications Establishment of an active disease surveillance programme. JR Gilkerson, CM Murray, S Reid and D Hodgson. Proceedings of the World Equine Veterinary Association conference. October 2003.

5. Lameness and Limb Injury-Developing More Effective Methods for Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment

Project Title: Genetic Approaches to Developmental Orthapaedic Disease (DOD) in Horses

RIRDC Project No.: UQ-86A

Researcher: Dr Richard Brandon

Organisation: University of Queensland, Australian Equine Blood Typing Research Laboratory.

Phone: 07-33653647

Fax: 07 33654899

Email: brandon@plpk.uq.edu.au

Objectives To source families of horses with a history of Developmental Orthopaedic Disease (DOD).
To isolate and store DNA from horses with DOD for future genetic studies.

Background DOD is a serious problem in young horses and is a large cause of wastage in the Thoroughbred industry. However, DOD is poorly described and most probably consists of several diseases with multifactorial aetiologies. It is believed both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the disease. Genetic technologies are advancing rapidly and it would be prudent to collect and store DNA samples from families of horses susceptible to DOD. Future analysis of such samples may demonstrate linkage of certain genes or alleles of genes to the disease.

Research DNA was stored for future research analysis purposes.

Outcomes Blood was collected from families of horses with known susceptibility to DOD. Samples were very difficult to obtain because owners of such horses were reluctant to provide samples and horse identification. DNA was extracted from the white blood cells taken from these horses and stored at -80⁰C.

Implications The concept of collecting and storing DNA samples from families of horses susceptible to DOD is very valid and remains the first step in any genetic disease correlation study.
The DNA samples from this project are located at the Australian Equine Genetics Research Centre at the University of Queensland. Not enough samples were collected over the course of the grant for the DNA to be of practical use in genetic studies at this stage. Future efforts to collect more samples would best be directed towards one horse stud where there is a strong and confidential relationship with the owner and breeder.

6. Exercise and Metabolic Disease-Optimising Fitness and Reducing Training Related Disease

Project Title: Development of an "on board" fitness monitoring system for the thoroughbred racing industry

RIRDC Project No.: EQP 1A

Researcher: Associate Professor David Evans

Organisation: The University of Sydney

Phone: 02 93512474

Fax: 02 93513957

Email: davide@vetsci.usyd.edu.au

Objectives To trial "on board" heart rate and speed monitoring technology, data collection and interpretation with a prominent thoroughbred trainer.
To develop an "on board" fitness test to be used by trainers of thoroughbred horses as an indicator of performance and health.
To develop the technology into a commercial product envisaged for the thoroughbred racing industry in Australia and overseas.

Background The thoroughbred racehorse industry experiences a large variability in horse performance and a high wastage rate of horses during the training process. There are few regular assessments of fitness of racehorses, despite the large volume of work performed using treadmill studies. Widespread adoption of measurements of fitness in the racing industry depends on the development of simple, reliable and acceptable methodology. Standard methods of fitness testing used in treadmill laboratory studies are not appropriate for field testing.
New technology enables logging of heart rate and horse gallop speed simultaneously during routine workouts on a racetrack or training farm. The aim of this project was to evaluate the ease of use of the technology in a commercial training environment, and to determine if it was possible to measure fitness reliably, that is, with minimal day-to-day variation in the results.

Research Trials of the functionality and "user friendliness’ of the hardware and software were completed in a commercial training stable. The reliability of measurements of fitness was evaluated by repeated measurements in horses that were exercising in their normal training routines. Reliability of measurements was improved by refinement of analytical techniques.

Outcomes The hardware and software proved exceptionally reliable, and the repeatability of measurements was very good. Commercialisation strategies are now in development.

Implications The results enable further studies of fitness in racehorses, and have been important in securing new funding for research and commercialisation.

Publications Gramkow, H.L., Evans, D.L., Stuart, A. (2003) Field studies of heart rate and velocity in Thoroughbred horses. In; Proceedings of 8^th Congress of the World Equine Veterinary Association, Buenos Aires, October 2003, page 60.

7. Reducing Reproductive Failure in Mares and Stallions and Establishing More Effective Treatments for Diseases of Foals

Project Title: Prevalence of radiological abnormalities in Thoroughbred yearlings

RIRDC Project No.: HVE-1A

Researcher: James Gilkerson

Organisation: The University of Melbourne, The Hunter Valley Equine Research Centre.

Phone: (03) 8344 9969

Fax: (03) 8344 7374

Email: jrgilk@unimelb.edu.au

Objectives To collect data on the frequency of radiographic developmental orthopaedic disease lesions in yearlings.

Background Radiographic studies have been performed on many of the yearlings to be sold in the 2003 and 2004 yearling sales. These studies were looking for radiographic evidence of developmental orthopaedic diseases such as osteochondritis dissecans, sub-chondral bone cysts. The information from these radiographs was kept as part of the farm records and the aim of this project was to retrieve these data in order to gain an estimate of the prevalence of these diseases in the thoroughbred yearling population.

Research Previously funded RIRDC research has assisted in the establishment of an equine disease surveillance system for the thoroughbred breeding industry. This project was funded to develop software to expand the capacity of the database to capture data derived from the repository X rays taken from thoroughbred yearlings at the yearling sales.

Outcomes Data from the 2003 and 2004 yearling crops has been collected and collated and is currently being analysed.

Implications The outcomes of this project will enable veterinarians to more accurately advise their clients on the frequency of these diseases in the population and in the long term will also provide potential buyers with the information they require as to the possible prognosis for an athletic future for yearlings with these diseases.

Project Title: Further development of vaccines against rhodococcus equi infection in foals

RIRDC Project No.: IMV-4A

Researcher: Dr Michael W. Heuzenroeder

Organisation: Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science

Phone: 08 82223275

Fax: 08 82223543

Email: heuzenroeder@imvs.sa.gov.au

Objectives Development of an improved animal model of R. equi infection for the testing of candidate vaccines.
Development of a GroEL/VapA epitope chimeric (combination) protein/DNA vaccine
Testing of vaccines against R. equi based upon the VapA and GroEL proteins in a non-equine model of R. equi infection and demonstration of an efficacious vaccine that protects against R. equi induced pneumonia.

Background The current model of R. equi infection and challenge in mice does not mimic the likely respiratory route of infection that is likely to occur in the horse. There is a need to develop a non- equine model of infection using the respiratory route. The proof that a vaccine is effective against an aerosol challenge of R. equi would justify the next and more expensive step of testing the vaccine candidates in horses.

Research Two vaccines (DNA and protein) based upon a chimeric GroEL protein containing an immunodominant B-Cell epitope of VapA were created. The DNA vaccine generated a predominantly Th1 immune response (predicted to be required protect against R. equi infection), however, after intravenous challenge by R. equi, the vaccine failed to enhance clearance of the organism. It is likely that the route of infection and the challenge dose is responsible for this result.
Two species of experimental animal were used to test the aerosol route of infection by R. equi. The guinea pig showed lesions in the lung similar to those produced byR. equi, however, underlying lung infections confounded the result leading to abandonment of this species as a model. Two strains of mice were then examined, one strain C3H appears promising as an experimental model, having lesions in the lung similar to those attributed to R. equi.

Outcomes Demonstration that the DNA vaccine generates a Th1 immune response in the Balb/c mice.
Demonstration that the DNA vaccine is immunogenic in guinea pigs.
Preliminary data suggests that C3H mice exposed to R. equi by aerosol may be a suitable non-equine model of R. equi disease.

Implications Further work with larger numbers of animals and differing R. equi dosing strategies is required to fully validate the C3H mouse model.

Project Title: Evaluating equine immune responses to new EHV-1 vaccine candidates

RIRDC Project No.: UMA-17A

Researcher: Associate Professors J. M. Whalley and D. N. Love

Organisation: Macquarie University
Department of Biological Sciences
SYDNEY NSW 2109

Phone: (02) 9850 8200

Fax: (02) 9850 8245

Email: mwhalley@rna.bio.mq.edu.au

Objectives Despite the widespread use of commercial whole virus vaccines, both equine herpesviruses 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4) continue to circulate in vaccinated populations of horses. In some cases, foals as young as 11 days of age are being infected from their dams who have been previously vaccinated. Specifically this project had two aims:
a) to develop an experimental challenge protocol in Australia for assessment of equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) vaccines, and
b) to use this challenge protocol to evaluate immune responses and the ability of new vaccines to prevent respiratory or systemic infection

Background Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disease, abortion, neonatal deaths and myeloencephalitis in horse populations worldwide. Extensive research has been directed at developing satisfactory vaccines to EHV-1. These have been based mainly on live or inactivated whole virus and several have been shown to reduce the severity of respiratory disease and/or the risk of abortion. They include an Australian vaccine based on a combination of inactivated EHV-1 and the related respiratory virus equine herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4). However difficulties in achieving high levels of immunity in the field have been illustrated by a survey of the antibody response to vaccination on a large Thoroughbred stud farm when less than 50% of foals and less than 30% of mares could be classified as responders to vaccination. Furthermore, we have recently demonstrated by PCR that EHV-1 and EHV-4 continue to infect foals as young as 11 days of age even when most of the mares on the farm had been vaccinated. This study describes antibody responses of mares and young foals to inoculation of full-length EHV-1 glycoproteins D and B (gD and gB), produced by a recombinant baculovirus and formulated with the adjuvant Iscomatrix^TM. Following the development of experimental EHV-1 infection models in the natural host, the subunit formulations were also tested for protection against respiratory challenge.

Research Subunit vaccine preparation: EHV-1 gD and gB were expressed by recombinant baculoviruses in insect cells and were delivered with the ISCOM-related adjuvant Iscomatrix^TM. In preliminary studies intramuscular injection of recombinant baculovirus EHV-1 gD (EHV-1 gDr) produced a specific ELISA and neutralizing antibody response in a high percentage of horses and the antibody responses elicited by this gD subunit were superior to those elicited by plasmid gD DNA or DNA and the subunit used in a prime-boost combination. Inoculation of EHV-1 gB also induced specific ELISA antibody responses in all horses tested.
Antibody responses of weanling foals to a subunit vaccine: The antibody response of weanling foals to EHV-1 gDr was investigated on a large Hunter Valley stud farm. Of 33 foals, foals initially aged four months displayed superior ELISA antibody responses compared with foals aged three and five months. The results of this study were the basis for the inoculation protocol used in a subsequent vaccination/challenge experiment.
Development of experimental challenge protocols: An EHV-1 respiratory infection challenge model was established at Murdoch University, Perth, WA, through collaboration with Dr Sharanne Raidal. The parameters established provided the basis for subsequent testing of any new vaccine for EHV-1 by experimental challenge of vaccinated horses.
Experimental challenge of weanling foals vaccinated with EHV-1 gDr: Thirteen foals were divided into two groups and half of the foals were inoculated with EHV-1 gDr at approximately four and five months of age. Following experimental challenge of the first group of foals at six months of age, there appeared to be a slight reduction in the number days of virus excretion following analysis of nasal swabs samples by PCR. Both vaccinated and control groups showed clinical signs, these results indicating that under the experimental conditions used the formulation did not prevent initial infection. The second group of foals was resistant to infectious challenge, and the data suggested that this may have been due to a recent prior infection with EHV-1, possibly due to reactivation of latent virus in one of the mares.
Antibody responses in mares and their young foals to vaccination by subunit vaccine: We conducted a study to determine whether EHV-1 gDr could elevate antibody levels in mares and if these antibodies would then be passed on to foals at a higher level than would normally be the case. The results showed that indeed inoculation of pregnant mares with the EHV-1 gDr elicited a specific neutralizing antibody response, and foals born from these mares had much higher levels of antibody than foals out of unvaccinated mares. These results suggest a modified strategy for vaccination, with particular attention to enhancing the immunity of the pregnant mare closer to foaling. The results of this work prompted an experimental vaccination/challenge experiment in pregnant mares and their young foals.
Experimental challenge of mares and very young foals following vaccination with an EHV-1 gD/gB vaccine: In this study, mares and very young foals were inoculated with an EHV-1 gD and gB subunit vaccine (EHV-1 gDBr) and were subsequently challenged approximately 60 days post partum. A significant decline in the period of virus excretion was observed in vaccinated animals. Unvaccinated foals born from vaccinated mares were no more protected than foals born from unvaccinated mares, suggesting that passively acquired maternal antibody is not sufficient in protecting young foals against infection. Contrary to prior reports, these results suggest that it is indeed possible to induce partial protection in very young foals through vaccination, and while the inoculation did not prevent infection, it did reduce the amount of virus shed thereby reducing the risk and prevalence of infection in a herd situation.
Experimental challenge of weanling foals following vaccination with EHV-1 gDBr: The results of the EHV-1 gDBr vaccination and challenge experiment indicated that the EHV-1 gDBr formulation provided better protection than EHV-1 gDr alone. This work prompted another investigation into the protection of weanling foals following inoculation with this subunit formulation. Foals were inoculated at approximately 6 months of age with EHV-1 gDBr and subsequently challenged. Samples for this experiment are being analysed.
Real time PCR test for detection of EHV-1: In order to enhance the sensitivity and to quantitate the amount of EHV-1 DNA in samples, as well as allowing rapid processing of large numbers of samples, we have adapted our original gel-based PCR test to Real-Time, using EHV-1 specific primers.

Outcomes An experimental challenge model for EHV-1 respiratory infection was established in horses using an Australian strain of EHV-1 along with a set of protocols and parameters
Results indicate that a subunit vaccine containing two envelope glycoproteins of EHV-1 can reduce the severity and duration of EHV-1 infections
A modified vaccine strategy is suggested where the pregnant mare and the young foal is the main target for vaccination
A Real Time PCR test was developed for EHV-1 (and EHV-4) DNA.

Implications The establishment of the experimental challenge model in Australia with the predominant EHV-1 strain in Australia provides a system for independent testing of vaccines against EHV-1
The subunit vaccine tested in the project shows promise as a new vaccine against EHV-1 and possibly EHV-4
Pending final results, modifications to existing vaccine strategies may be recommended
A new rapid Real Time diagnostic test is available for rapid detection and quantitation of EHV-1 in experimental or clinical samples

Publications Foote, C. E., Love, D. N., Gilkerson, J. R., Rota, J., Trevor-Jones, P., Ruitenberg, K. M., Wellington, J. E., Whalley, J. M. Serum antibody responses to equine herpesvirus 1 glycoprotein D in horses, including pregnant mares and young foals. Submitted to Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology
Foote, C. E., Love, D. N., Gilkerson, J. R., Whalley, J. M. (2004). Detection of EHV-1 and EHV-4 DNA in unweaned Thoroughbred foals from vaccinated mares on a large stud farm. Equine Veterinary Journal 36,341-345
Foote, C. E., Gilkerson, J. R., Whalley, J. M., Love, D. N. (2003). Seroprevalence of equine herpesvirus 1 in mares and foals on a large Hunter Valley stud farm in years pre- and post- vaccination. Australian Veterinary Journal 81, 283-288.
Foote, C. E., Love, D. N., Gilkerson, J. R., & Whalley, J. M. (2002). Serological responses of mares and weanlings following vaccination with an inactivated whole virus equine herpesvirus 1 and equine herpesvirus 4 vaccine Veterinary Microbiology 88, 13-25.

Publications Vanniasinkam T, Barton MD, Heuzenroeder MW: The immunogenicity of Rhodococcus equi GroEL2-based vaccines in a murine model. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 98 : 91-100 (2004)
Rhodococcus equi diagnostic Patent Application No. PCT/AU01/00478: entitled "Antigenic Peptide Fragments and uses thereof".
Rhodococcus equi vaccine Patent Application No. PCT/AU02/01460: entitled "GroEL Chimeric Protein and Vaccine".

8. Improving Racetracks and Working Surfaces for Horses

Project Title: 8^th Australian Racecourse Managers Conference, 2003

RIRDC Project No.: PTP-19A

Researcher: Arthur Stubbs

Organisation: Primary Tasks Pty Ltd
Unit 58, Level 2
247 Drummond Street
Carlton Vic 3053

Phone: 03 9844 1135

Fax: 03 9844 4554

Email: akstubbs@compuserve.com

Objectives Improvement of racing industry communication, education and knowledge on issues of racetrack design, development, maintenance and performance for the advancement of economical and sustainable strategies for racecourse management.

Background A survey of grass racecourses in Australia in 1995, funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), found a wide variation in the level of racecourse management expertise and technical knowledge. In addition, there was a sense of isolation by many racecourse managers and an expressed need for more information relevant to their jobs.
This led to Racecourse Managers Conferences being held in subsequent years, at Rosehill, Moonee Valley, Doomben, Morphettville, Melbourne, Randwick, and Ascot, and in 2003, the 8^th Australian Racecourse Managers Conference, held at the Sunshine Coast Turf Club, Caloundra, Queensland from August 18-20.

Outcomes 98 people attended the conference, including 64 racecourse managers, administrators and staff from 50 racecourses and racing organisations throughout Australia and New Zealand, plus suppliers and consultants to the racecourse industry, research workers and turf specialists.
The objective was achieved through discussion of papers on environmental best practice for racecourses; horse/track surface interaction and turf research; panel sessions on machinery requirements, track maintenance and future track developments; an inspection of Corbould Park racecourse; visits to Craiglea Stud, Strathayr turf farm and Deagon Training Centre; and general liaison between racecourse managers and other turf managers and specialists.

Implications The conference will result in increased ability of racecourse managers to practise their profession and apply best practices, leading to higher standards of racecourse management. Benefits accrue from improvements in track performance, appearance and life, and associated economic and environmental advantages for racing clubs and the community.
The conference also strengthened the resolve of racecourse managers to apply the accepted best practices, modified according to their particular situation, and armed them with the knowledge to justify their actions to the many stakeholders in the racing industry.

Publications 8th Australian Racecourse Managers Conference Proceedings, August,2003

9. Other

Project Title: Racetrack design and performance database

RIRDC Project No.: PTP-20A

Researcher: Arthur Stubbs

Organisation: Primary Tasks Pty Ltd

Phone: 03 9844 1135

Fax: 03 9844 4554

Email: akstubbs@compuserve.com

Objectives Compilation and analysis of data on race and training track construction and performance as a basis for development of quality standards and monitoring procedures relevant to horse performance and injury.

Background Forums of Racecourse Managers revealed a wide range of approaches to track construction and maintenance and a lack of recognised standards despite the general aim of providing tracks that give best performance and horse safety.

Research Surveys and consultations were conducted regarding a number of recent track constructions in Australia to determine results, lessons learnt, maintenance and monitoring procedures. An international literature review was undertaken for information on the relationship of tracks with horse injury.

Outcomes The literature review found some limited knowledge about track related risk factors for horse injury. Surveys and consultations revealed that track constructions usually gave better track use but there was little objective evidence, and a dearth of monitoring, of improved horse performance and safety.
However, from experiences to date, broad parameters were able to be established for standards of track geometry, profile, maintenance and monitoring procedures.

Implications In view of the gaps in current knowledge, recommendations are made for more research into the effects of different track designs and surfaces on horse performance, means of directly measuring track impact on horses, and standardisation of track and horse performance monitoring procedures.

Publications "Racetrack Design and Performance – a database of current knowledge", December, 2003

Project Title: Monitoring Falls During Eventing — Establishment of a national surveillance system to monitor injury to riders and horses from falls during the cross-country phase of eventing in Australia.

RIRDC Project No.: UF-10A

Researcher: Raymond A. Cripps and Denzil O’Brien

Organisation: Flinders University
Research Centre for Injury Studies
Bedford Park SA 5158

Phone: 08 8374 0970

Fax: 08 8374 0702

Email: raymond.cripps@ flinders.edu.au

Objectives To Establish a national surveillance system to monitor injury to riders and horses from falls during the cross-country phase of eventing in Australia.

Background In 2001, a pilot project was undertaken to see if a national surveillance program to monitor falls at Equestrian Federation of Australia (EFA) affiliated horse trials events was feasible. Falls associated with the cross-country phase of the sport (known as ‘eventing’) was the focus of this pilot as falls-related deaths and severe injuries had been reported in this sport in the immediately preceding years. Based on the successful outcome of this pilot study, which monitored falls in South Australia and New South Wales, the scope of the pilot was broadened to include all jurisdictions in Australia which conducted EFA affiliated events.

Research A process to collect information on the event, riders and falls was set up nationally and data on horse and rider falls were collected during the 2002 and 2003 eventing seasons. Six hundred and thirty-six falls were reported involving 459 riders who had one fall. One hundred and seventy-seven other riders had multiple falls (two to five or more falls) during the reporting periods The results indicated that the rate of rider and horse falls was low (12 and 2 falls per 10,000 jumping efforts, respectively). However, the rate of falls increased as the level of competition increased from Pre-novice to Advanced classes. Thirty-four per cent of the riders who fell reported injuries from falling. Injury to the upper body region (head, neck, shoulders and upper limbs) was reported in 43 per cent of the injured riders, with the head and neck accounting for half of these injuries. Most injuries were minor, but
22 per cent of the injured riders went to the Emergency Department for treatment and ten were admitted to hospital. Head injuries and fractures were treated in hospital. Thirty-nine of 89 horses that fell were reported injured (69 per cent had minor injuries, mainly abrasions, lacerations or bruising). More serious injuries such as tendon damage, muscle damage or fractures were reported in 11 horses.

Outcomes This Report describes the results of the national study and in particular describes and characterises fall events in the sport nationally. It also determined the risk of falling during the cross-country phase of eventing, and characterises the fall-related injuries of horse and riders. The Report discusses the processes and findings relating to data acquisition. Further, it will inform research and policy development that has as its goal the reduction of horse-related injury during eventing in Australia.

Implications The implementation of a national surveillance system to monitor falls in Australia is a world first. It supports the safety initiatives of the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) and Equestrian Federation of Australia (EFA). The data obtained will support a program of research on injury prevention and the development of counter-measures to reduce falls and injuries during eventing

Publications Cripps, RA. 2003. Spinal cord injury, Australia 2001-02. Injury Research and Statistics Series Number 19. Adelaide: AIHW (AIHW cat no. INJCAT 58).
Cripps RA 2002. Monitoring falls during eventing – Horse and rider injuries in the cross-country phase. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation Publication No 02/082, July 2002.
Cripps RA, Steenkamp M, Harrison JH 2002. Injury hospital morbidity, Australia 1998–99. Injury Research and Statistics Series. Adelaide: AIHW, in press
Steenkamp M & Cripps RA 2001. Child injuries due to falls. Injury Research and Statistics Series. Adelaide: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW cat no. INJCAT 37).
Cripps RA & Carman J 2001. Falls by the elderly in Australia: Trends and data for 1998. Injury Research and Statistics Series. Adelaide: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW cat no. INJCAT 35).
Cripps RA. Horse-related injury in Australia. Australian Injury Prevention Bulletin 24, AIHW Cat. No. INJ26, May 2000. Research Centre for Injury Studies, Flinders University, 2000.
O’Connor P & Cripps RA 1999. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) surveillance issues: a discussion paper. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
O’Connor P, Bordeaux S, Cripps RA 1999. Assembly of statistical information on road crashes and road injury in rural and remote areas of South Australia. Adelaide: Flinders University, Research Centre for Injury Studies.
Cripps RA, O'Connor PJ. 1998. Spinal Cord Injury, Australia 1996/97. Australian Injury Prevention Bulletin 18, AIHW Cat. No. INJ013, April. Adelaide: Research Centre for Injury Studies, Flinders University of South Australia.
Harrison J & Cripps RA 1994. Injury in Australia: an epidemiological review. Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health.

Project Title: Role of latent equine herpesvirus infections in respiratory disease

RIRDC Project No.: UMU-28A

Researcher: Professor Graham Wilcox

Organisation: Murdoch University

Phone: 08-9360 2448

Fax: 08-9360 6630

Email: gwilcox@murdoch.edu.au

Objectives The objectives of this project were an improved understanding of the pathogenesis and clinical implications of the gammaherpesviruses by a sequential study of these viruses in cohorts of foals from birth until post-weaning, and an improved understanding of equine herpesvirus latency, particularly latency of the gammaherpesviruses, requiring development of techniques to determine whether virus detected using molecular techniques was active or latent virus infections. Equine herpesviruses, as do all herpesviruses, persist in either neural or peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) following recovery from the initial acute virus infection. Further virus replication, resulting in shedding of virus and/or clinical disease, may follow virus reactivation by various stressors.

Background Respiratory disease is an important cause of wastage in the horse racing industry. Viral respiratory disease is an important contributor to this wastage, with EHV 1 and 4 widely regarded as important pathogens. The clinical implications of two other equine herpesviruses, EHV2 and 5, are poorly understood: EHV2 has been implicated as a cause of respiratory disease, either directly or by rendering the affected horse at increased risk for secondary viral and/or bacterial pathogens; EHV5 has been recognised only recently and its potential contribution to respiratory disease in horses has not been evaluated. The future control of respiratory disease in horses will require an improved understanding of the clinico-virological aspects of equine herpesvirus infections utilising technology that has not previously been available and including evaluation of the role of EHV2 and 5 infections.

Research The gammaherpesviruses EHV2 and EHV5 were commonly detected in foals prior to weaning but this was not associated with the onset of respiratory disease or other clinical signs. Post-weaning, there was a marked increase in the prevalence of both EHV2 and EHV5 in foals, presumably associated with reactivation of latent virus by stress, but this was also not associated with detectable clinical signs of disease. There were apparent differences in the duration and site of EHV2 and EHV5 infection: EHV2 appeared to produce a transient infection of the respiratory tract; in contrast, EHV5 infection persisted for longer in foals once it was detected, and it was detected most commonly in PBL rather than in swabs taken from the respiratory tract. Initial studies indicate this persistent EHV5 infection was associated with latent infection of PBL. Studies on the development of a type-specific serological test for EHV2 and alternative methods of differentiating active and latent gammaherpesvirus infection are continuing.
In the small breeding establishments examined, no evidence of EHV1 or EHV4 infection was detected in foals prior to or during the post-weaning period.

Outcomes An improved understanding of the gammaherpesvirus EHV2 and EHV5 infections in foals pre-weaning and at weaning.

Implications This project has shown that a low prevalence of equine herpesviruses EHV2 and EHV5 are present in foals prior to weaning and these appear to be activated and increase in prevalence in association with the stress of weaning but this is not necessarily associated with the onset of respiratory disease or other clinical disease.

Publications Wang, L. (2004) An association between equine herpesviruses and respiratory disease in racehorses in Western Australia. PhD Thesis. Murdoch University.

Project Title:	Prospective longitudinal study of disease on equine stud farms
RIRDC Project No.:	US-108A
Researcher:	James Gilkerson
Organisation:	The University of Melbourne, The Hunter Valley Equine Research Centre.
Phone:	(03) 8344 9969
Fax:	(03) 8344 7374
Email:	jrgilk@unimelb.edu.au
Objectives	To establish a disease surveillance system for the thoroughbred breeding industry and so determine an accurate estimate of the frequency and cost of various diseases to the industry.
Background	The thoroughbred breeding industry is an important contributor to Australia’s GDP and is a major employer and export industry. Despite the importance of this industry to the rural economy the cost of endemic disease in the horse industry was not known, and there was no surveillance of the breeding population to establish a baseline frequency of disease. This surveillance system provides the basis for objective, industry based data to determine the frequency and cost of disease and thus gives participating farms the capacity to benchmark amongst their peers.
Research	Computer software has been developed that facilitates extraction of population and disease data from the office computers of participating farms. This data is uploaded via the internet to the central database from which twice yearly reports are produced for the farms. The system was established and tested using data collected from 10 stud farms in the Hunter Valley of NSW during the 2001 and 2002 breeding season. Data has been collected during the 2003 season and is currently being analysed. Farms from Queensland and Victoria have recently been recruited into the database with an aim of producing a national surveillance system in the near future..
Outcomes	Data on the incidence, prevalence and cost of a number of important diseases has been collected and collated from the participating farms.
Implications	This project has implications for the thoroughbred breeding industry specifically and for research into equine disease in general. The data generated by this surveillance system will provide the means for individual farms to benchmark the impact of various diseases on their farm with their peers. This system will also provide the breeding industry with the data to lobby the pharmaceutical industry for the development or importation of products to treat or prevent important diseases. Finally, the results from this project will allow the thoroughbred industry to identify their research priorities and will also provide an objective basis upon which to assess the impact of the resultant research programmes.
Publications	Establishment of an active disease surveillance programme. JR Gilkerson, CM Murray, S Reid and D Hodgson. Proceedings of the World Equine Veterinary Association conference. October 2003.

Project Title:	Genetic Approaches to Developmental Orthapaedic Disease (DOD) in Horses
RIRDC Project No.:	UQ-86A
Researcher:	Dr Richard Brandon
Organisation:	University of Queensland, Australian Equine Blood Typing Research Laboratory.
Phone:	07-33653647
Fax:	07 33654899
Email:	brandon@plpk.uq.edu.au
Objectives	To source families of horses with a history of Developmental Orthopaedic Disease (DOD). To isolate and store DNA from horses with DOD for future genetic studies.
Background	DOD is a serious problem in young horses and is a large cause of wastage in the Thoroughbred industry. However, DOD is poorly described and most probably consists of several diseases with multifactorial aetiologies. It is believed both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the disease. Genetic technologies are advancing rapidly and it would be prudent to collect and store DNA samples from families of horses susceptible to DOD. Future analysis of such samples may demonstrate linkage of certain genes or alleles of genes to the disease.
Research	DNA was stored for future research analysis purposes.
Outcomes	Blood was collected from families of horses with known susceptibility to DOD. Samples were very difficult to obtain because owners of such horses were reluctant to provide samples and horse identification. DNA was extracted from the white blood cells taken from these horses and stored at -80⁰C.
Implications	The concept of collecting and storing DNA samples from families of horses susceptible to DOD is very valid and remains the first step in any genetic disease correlation study. The DNA samples from this project are located at the Australian Equine Genetics Research Centre at the University of Queensland. Not enough samples were collected over the course of the grant for the DNA to be of practical use in genetic studies at this stage. Future efforts to collect more samples would best be directed towards one horse stud where there is a strong and confidential relationship with the owner and breeder.

Project Title:	Development of an "on board" fitness monitoring system for the thoroughbred racing industry
RIRDC Project No.:	EQP 1A
Researcher:	Associate Professor David Evans
Organisation:	The University of Sydney
Phone:	02 93512474
Fax:	02 93513957
Email:	davide@vetsci.usyd.edu.au
Objectives	To trial "on board" heart rate and speed monitoring technology, data collection and interpretation with a prominent thoroughbred trainer. To develop an "on board" fitness test to be used by trainers of thoroughbred horses as an indicator of performance and health. To develop the technology into a commercial product envisaged for the thoroughbred racing industry in Australia and overseas.
Background	The thoroughbred racehorse industry experiences a large variability in horse performance and a high wastage rate of horses during the training process. There are few regular assessments of fitness of racehorses, despite the large volume of work performed using treadmill studies. Widespread adoption of measurements of fitness in the racing industry depends on the development of simple, reliable and acceptable methodology. Standard methods of fitness testing used in treadmill laboratory studies are not appropriate for field testing. New technology enables logging of heart rate and horse gallop speed simultaneously during routine workouts on a racetrack or training farm. The aim of this project was to evaluate the ease of use of the technology in a commercial training environment, and to determine if it was possible to measure fitness reliably, that is, with minimal day-to-day variation in the results.
Research	Trials of the functionality and "user friendliness’ of the hardware and software were completed in a commercial training stable. The reliability of measurements of fitness was evaluated by repeated measurements in horses that were exercising in their normal training routines. Reliability of measurements was improved by refinement of analytical techniques.
Outcomes	The hardware and software proved exceptionally reliable, and the repeatability of measurements was very good. Commercialisation strategies are now in development.
Implications	The results enable further studies of fitness in racehorses, and have been important in securing new funding for research and commercialisation.
Publications	Gramkow, H.L., Evans, D.L., Stuart, A. (2003) Field studies of heart rate and velocity in Thoroughbred horses. In; Proceedings of 8^th Congress of the World Equine Veterinary Association, Buenos Aires, October 2003, page 60.

Project Title:	Prevalence of radiological abnormalities in Thoroughbred yearlings
RIRDC Project No.:	HVE-1A
Researcher:	James Gilkerson
Organisation:	The University of Melbourne, The Hunter Valley Equine Research Centre.
Phone:	(03) 8344 9969
Fax:	(03) 8344 7374
Email:	jrgilk@unimelb.edu.au
Objectives	To collect data on the frequency of radiographic developmental orthopaedic disease lesions in yearlings.
Background	Radiographic studies have been performed on many of the yearlings to be sold in the 2003 and 2004 yearling sales. These studies were looking for radiographic evidence of developmental orthopaedic diseases such as osteochondritis dissecans, sub-chondral bone cysts. The information from these radiographs was kept as part of the farm records and the aim of this project was to retrieve these data in order to gain an estimate of the prevalence of these diseases in the thoroughbred yearling population.
Research	Previously funded RIRDC research has assisted in the establishment of an equine disease surveillance system for the thoroughbred breeding industry. This project was funded to develop software to expand the capacity of the database to capture data derived from the repository X rays taken from thoroughbred yearlings at the yearling sales.
Outcomes	Data from the 2003 and 2004 yearling crops has been collected and collated and is currently being analysed.
Implications	The outcomes of this project will enable veterinarians to more accurately advise their clients on the frequency of these diseases in the population and in the long term will also provide potential buyers with the information they require as to the possible prognosis for an athletic future for yearlings with these diseases.

Project Title:	Further development of vaccines against rhodococcus equi infection in foals
RIRDC Project No.:	IMV-4A
Researcher:	Dr Michael W. Heuzenroeder
Organisation:	Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science
Phone:	08 82223275
Fax:	08 82223543
Email:	heuzenroeder@imvs.sa.gov.au
Objectives	Development of an improved animal model of R. equi infection for the testing of candidate vaccines. Development of a GroEL/VapA epitope chimeric (combination) protein/DNA vaccine Testing of vaccines against R. equi based upon the VapA and GroEL proteins in a non-equine model of R. equi infection and demonstration of an efficacious vaccine that protects against R. equi induced pneumonia.
Background	The current model of R. equi infection and challenge in mice does not mimic the likely respiratory route of infection that is likely to occur in the horse. There is a need to develop a non- equine model of infection using the respiratory route. The proof that a vaccine is effective against an aerosol challenge of R. equi would justify the next and more expensive step of testing the vaccine candidates in horses.
Research	Two vaccines (DNA and protein) based upon a chimeric GroEL protein containing an immunodominant B-Cell epitope of VapA were created. The DNA vaccine generated a predominantly Th1 immune response (predicted to be required protect against R. equi infection), however, after intravenous challenge by R. equi, the vaccine failed to enhance clearance of the organism. It is likely that the route of infection and the challenge dose is responsible for this result. Two species of experimental animal were used to test the aerosol route of infection by R. equi. The guinea pig showed lesions in the lung similar to those produced byR. equi, however, underlying lung infections confounded the result leading to abandonment of this species as a model. Two strains of mice were then examined, one strain C3H appears promising as an experimental model, having lesions in the lung similar to those attributed to R. equi.
Outcomes	Demonstration that the DNA vaccine generates a Th1 immune response in the Balb/c mice. Demonstration that the DNA vaccine is immunogenic in guinea pigs. Preliminary data suggests that C3H mice exposed to R. equi by aerosol may be a suitable non-equine model of R. equi disease.
Implications	Further work with larger numbers of animals and differing R. equi dosing strategies is required to fully validate the C3H mouse model.

Project Title:	Evaluating equine immune responses to new EHV-1 vaccine candidates
RIRDC Project No.:	UMA-17A
Researcher:	Associate Professors J. M. Whalley and D. N. Love
Organisation:	Macquarie University Department of Biological Sciences SYDNEY NSW 2109
Phone:	(02) 9850 8200
Fax:	(02) 9850 8245
Email:	mwhalley@rna.bio.mq.edu.au
Objectives	Despite the widespread use of commercial whole virus vaccines, both equine herpesviruses 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4) continue to circulate in vaccinated populations of horses. In some cases, foals as young as 11 days of age are being infected from their dams who have been previously vaccinated. Specifically this project had two aims: a) to develop an experimental challenge protocol in Australia for assessment of equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) vaccines, and b) to use this challenge protocol to evaluate immune responses and the ability of new vaccines to prevent respiratory or systemic infection
Background	Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disease, abortion, neonatal deaths and myeloencephalitis in horse populations worldwide. Extensive research has been directed at developing satisfactory vaccines to EHV-1. These have been based mainly on live or inactivated whole virus and several have been shown to reduce the severity of respiratory disease and/or the risk of abortion. They include an Australian vaccine based on a combination of inactivated EHV-1 and the related respiratory virus equine herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4). However difficulties in achieving high levels of immunity in the field have been illustrated by a survey of the antibody response to vaccination on a large Thoroughbred stud farm when less than 50% of foals and less than 30% of mares could be classified as responders to vaccination. Furthermore, we have recently demonstrated by PCR that EHV-1 and EHV-4 continue to infect foals as young as 11 days of age even when most of the mares on the farm had been vaccinated. This study describes antibody responses of mares and young foals to inoculation of full-length EHV-1 glycoproteins D and B (gD and gB), produced by a recombinant baculovirus and formulated with the adjuvant Iscomatrix^TM. Following the development of experimental EHV-1 infection models in the natural host, the subunit formulations were also tested for protection against respiratory challenge.
Research	Subunit vaccine preparation: EHV-1 gD and gB were expressed by recombinant baculoviruses in insect cells and were delivered with the ISCOM-related adjuvant Iscomatrix^TM. In preliminary studies intramuscular injection of recombinant baculovirus EHV-1 gD (EHV-1 gDr) produced a specific ELISA and neutralizing antibody response in a high percentage of horses and the antibody responses elicited by this gD subunit were superior to those elicited by plasmid gD DNA or DNA and the subunit used in a prime-boost combination. Inoculation of EHV-1 gB also induced specific ELISA antibody responses in all horses tested. Antibody responses of weanling foals to a subunit vaccine: The antibody response of weanling foals to EHV-1 gDr was investigated on a large Hunter Valley stud farm. Of 33 foals, foals initially aged four months displayed superior ELISA antibody responses compared with foals aged three and five months. The results of this study were the basis for the inoculation protocol used in a subsequent vaccination/challenge experiment. Development of experimental challenge protocols: An EHV-1 respiratory infection challenge model was established at Murdoch University, Perth, WA, through collaboration with Dr Sharanne Raidal. The parameters established provided the basis for subsequent testing of any new vaccine for EHV-1 by experimental challenge of vaccinated horses. Experimental challenge of weanling foals vaccinated with EHV-1 gDr: Thirteen foals were divided into two groups and half of the foals were inoculated with EHV-1 gDr at approximately four and five months of age. Following experimental challenge of the first group of foals at six months of age, there appeared to be a slight reduction in the number days of virus excretion following analysis of nasal swabs samples by PCR. Both vaccinated and control groups showed clinical signs, these results indicating that under the experimental conditions used the formulation did not prevent initial infection. The second group of foals was resistant to infectious challenge, and the data suggested that this may have been due to a recent prior infection with EHV-1, possibly due to reactivation of latent virus in one of the mares. Antibody responses in mares and their young foals to vaccination by subunit vaccine: We conducted a study to determine whether EHV-1 gDr could elevate antibody levels in mares and if these antibodies would then be passed on to foals at a higher level than would normally be the case. The results showed that indeed inoculation of pregnant mares with the EHV-1 gDr elicited a specific neutralizing antibody response, and foals born from these mares had much higher levels of antibody than foals out of unvaccinated mares. These results suggest a modified strategy for vaccination, with particular attention to enhancing the immunity of the pregnant mare closer to foaling. The results of this work prompted an experimental vaccination/challenge experiment in pregnant mares and their young foals. Experimental challenge of mares and very young foals following vaccination with an EHV-1 gD/gB vaccine: In this study, mares and very young foals were inoculated with an EHV-1 gD and gB subunit vaccine (EHV-1 gDBr) and were subsequently challenged approximately 60 days post partum. A significant decline in the period of virus excretion was observed in vaccinated animals. Unvaccinated foals born from vaccinated mares were no more protected than foals born from unvaccinated mares, suggesting that passively acquired maternal antibody is not sufficient in protecting young foals against infection. Contrary to prior reports, these results suggest that it is indeed possible to induce partial protection in very young foals through vaccination, and while the inoculation did not prevent infection, it did reduce the amount of virus shed thereby reducing the risk and prevalence of infection in a herd situation. Experimental challenge of weanling foals following vaccination with EHV-1 gDBr: The results of the EHV-1 gDBr vaccination and challenge experiment indicated that the EHV-1 gDBr formulation provided better protection than EHV-1 gDr alone. This work prompted another investigation into the protection of weanling foals following inoculation with this subunit formulation. Foals were inoculated at approximately 6 months of age with EHV-1 gDBr and subsequently challenged. Samples for this experiment are being analysed. Real time PCR test for detection of EHV-1: In order to enhance the sensitivity and to quantitate the amount of EHV-1 DNA in samples, as well as allowing rapid processing of large numbers of samples, we have adapted our original gel-based PCR test to Real-Time, using EHV-1 specific primers.
Outcomes	An experimental challenge model for EHV-1 respiratory infection was established in horses using an Australian strain of EHV-1 along with a set of protocols and parameters Results indicate that a subunit vaccine containing two envelope glycoproteins of EHV-1 can reduce the severity and duration of EHV-1 infections A modified vaccine strategy is suggested where the pregnant mare and the young foal is the main target for vaccination A Real Time PCR test was developed for EHV-1 (and EHV-4) DNA.
Implications	The establishment of the experimental challenge model in Australia with the predominant EHV-1 strain in Australia provides a system for independent testing of vaccines against EHV-1 The subunit vaccine tested in the project shows promise as a new vaccine against EHV-1 and possibly EHV-4 Pending final results, modifications to existing vaccine strategies may be recommended A new rapid Real Time diagnostic test is available for rapid detection and quantitation of EHV-1 in experimental or clinical samples
Publications	Foote, C. E., Love, D. N., Gilkerson, J. R., Rota, J., Trevor-Jones, P., Ruitenberg, K. M., Wellington, J. E., Whalley, J. M. Serum antibody responses to equine herpesvirus 1 glycoprotein D in horses, including pregnant mares and young foals. Submitted to Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology Foote, C. E., Love, D. N., Gilkerson, J. R., Whalley, J. M. (2004). Detection of EHV-1 and EHV-4 DNA in unweaned Thoroughbred foals from vaccinated mares on a large stud farm. Equine Veterinary Journal 36,341-345 Foote, C. E., Gilkerson, J. R., Whalley, J. M., Love, D. N. (2003). Seroprevalence of equine herpesvirus 1 in mares and foals on a large Hunter Valley stud farm in years pre- and post- vaccination. Australian Veterinary Journal 81, 283-288. Foote, C. E., Love, D. N., Gilkerson, J. R., & Whalley, J. M. (2002). Serological responses of mares and weanlings following vaccination with an inactivated whole virus equine herpesvirus 1 and equine herpesvirus 4 vaccine Veterinary Microbiology 88, 13-25.

Project Title:	8^th Australian Racecourse Managers Conference, 2003
RIRDC Project No.:	PTP-19A
Researcher:	Arthur Stubbs
Organisation:	Primary Tasks Pty Ltd Unit 58, Level 2 247 Drummond Street Carlton Vic 3053
Phone:	03 9844 1135
Fax:	03 9844 4554
Email:	akstubbs@compuserve.com
Objectives	Improvement of racing industry communication, education and knowledge on issues of racetrack design, development, maintenance and performance for the advancement of economical and sustainable strategies for racecourse management.
Background	A survey of grass racecourses in Australia in 1995, funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), found a wide variation in the level of racecourse management expertise and technical knowledge. In addition, there was a sense of isolation by many racecourse managers and an expressed need for more information relevant to their jobs. This led to Racecourse Managers Conferences being held in subsequent years, at Rosehill, Moonee Valley, Doomben, Morphettville, Melbourne, Randwick, and Ascot, and in 2003, the 8^th Australian Racecourse Managers Conference, held at the Sunshine Coast Turf Club, Caloundra, Queensland from August 18-20.
Outcomes	98 people attended the conference, including 64 racecourse managers, administrators and staff from 50 racecourses and racing organisations throughout Australia and New Zealand, plus suppliers and consultants to the racecourse industry, research workers and turf specialists. The objective was achieved through discussion of papers on environmental best practice for racecourses; horse/track surface interaction and turf research; panel sessions on machinery requirements, track maintenance and future track developments; an inspection of Corbould Park racecourse; visits to Craiglea Stud, Strathayr turf farm and Deagon Training Centre; and general liaison between racecourse managers and other turf managers and specialists.
Implications	The conference will result in increased ability of racecourse managers to practise their profession and apply best practices, leading to higher standards of racecourse management. Benefits accrue from improvements in track performance, appearance and life, and associated economic and environmental advantages for racing clubs and the community. The conference also strengthened the resolve of racecourse managers to apply the accepted best practices, modified according to their particular situation, and armed them with the knowledge to justify their actions to the many stakeholders in the racing industry.
Publications	8th Australian Racecourse Managers Conference Proceedings, August,2003

Project Title:	Racetrack design and performance database
RIRDC Project No.:	PTP-20A
Researcher:	Arthur Stubbs
Organisation:	Primary Tasks Pty Ltd
Phone:	03 9844 1135
Fax:	03 9844 4554
Email:	akstubbs@compuserve.com
Objectives	Compilation and analysis of data on race and training track construction and performance as a basis for development of quality standards and monitoring procedures relevant to horse performance and injury.
Background	Forums of Racecourse Managers revealed a wide range of approaches to track construction and maintenance and a lack of recognised standards despite the general aim of providing tracks that give best performance and horse safety.
Research	Surveys and consultations were conducted regarding a number of recent track constructions in Australia to determine results, lessons learnt, maintenance and monitoring procedures. An international literature review was undertaken for information on the relationship of tracks with horse injury.
Outcomes	The literature review found some limited knowledge about track related risk factors for horse injury. Surveys and consultations revealed that track constructions usually gave better track use but there was little objective evidence, and a dearth of monitoring, of improved horse performance and safety. However, from experiences to date, broad parameters were able to be established for standards of track geometry, profile, maintenance and monitoring procedures.
Implications	In view of the gaps in current knowledge, recommendations are made for more research into the effects of different track designs and surfaces on horse performance, means of directly measuring track impact on horses, and standardisation of track and horse performance monitoring procedures.
Publications	"Racetrack Design and Performance – a database of current knowledge", December, 2003

Project Title:	Monitoring Falls During Eventing — Establishment of a national surveillance system to monitor injury to riders and horses from falls during the cross-country phase of eventing in Australia.
RIRDC Project No.:	UF-10A
Researcher:	Raymond A. Cripps and Denzil O’Brien
Organisation:	Flinders University Research Centre for Injury Studies Bedford Park SA 5158
Phone:	08 8374 0970
Fax:	08 8374 0702
Email:	raymond.cripps@ flinders.edu.au
Objectives	To Establish a national surveillance system to monitor injury to riders and horses from falls during the cross-country phase of eventing in Australia.
Background	In 2001, a pilot project was undertaken to see if a national surveillance program to monitor falls at Equestrian Federation of Australia (EFA) affiliated horse trials events was feasible. Falls associated with the cross-country phase of the sport (known as ‘eventing’) was the focus of this pilot as falls-related deaths and severe injuries had been reported in this sport in the immediately preceding years. Based on the successful outcome of this pilot study, which monitored falls in South Australia and New South Wales, the scope of the pilot was broadened to include all jurisdictions in Australia which conducted EFA affiliated events.
Research	A process to collect information on the event, riders and falls was set up nationally and data on horse and rider falls were collected during the 2002 and 2003 eventing seasons. Six hundred and thirty-six falls were reported involving 459 riders who had one fall. One hundred and seventy-seven other riders had multiple falls (two to five or more falls) during the reporting periods The results indicated that the rate of rider and horse falls was low (12 and 2 falls per 10,000 jumping efforts, respectively). However, the rate of falls increased as the level of competition increased from Pre-novice to Advanced classes. Thirty-four per cent of the riders who fell reported injuries from falling. Injury to the upper body region (head, neck, shoulders and upper limbs) was reported in 43 per cent of the injured riders, with the head and neck accounting for half of these injuries. Most injuries were minor, but 22 per cent of the injured riders went to the Emergency Department for treatment and ten were admitted to hospital. Head injuries and fractures were treated in hospital. Thirty-nine of 89 horses that fell were reported injured (69 per cent had minor injuries, mainly abrasions, lacerations or bruising). More serious injuries such as tendon damage, muscle damage or fractures were reported in 11 horses.
Outcomes	This Report describes the results of the national study and in particular describes and characterises fall events in the sport nationally. It also determined the risk of falling during the cross-country phase of eventing, and characterises the fall-related injuries of horse and riders. The Report discusses the processes and findings relating to data acquisition. Further, it will inform research and policy development that has as its goal the reduction of horse-related injury during eventing in Australia.
Implications	The implementation of a national surveillance system to monitor falls in Australia is a world first. It supports the safety initiatives of the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) and Equestrian Federation of Australia (EFA). The data obtained will support a program of research on injury prevention and the development of counter-measures to reduce falls and injuries during eventing
Publications	Cripps, RA. 2003. Spinal cord injury, Australia 2001-02. Injury Research and Statistics Series Number 19. Adelaide: AIHW (AIHW cat no. INJCAT 58). Cripps RA 2002. Monitoring falls during eventing – Horse and rider injuries in the cross-country phase. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation Publication No 02/082, July 2002. Cripps RA, Steenkamp M, Harrison JH 2002. Injury hospital morbidity, Australia 1998–99. Injury Research and Statistics Series. Adelaide: AIHW, in press Steenkamp M & Cripps RA 2001. Child injuries due to falls. Injury Research and Statistics Series. Adelaide: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW cat no. INJCAT 37). Cripps RA & Carman J 2001. Falls by the elderly in Australia: Trends and data for 1998. Injury Research and Statistics Series. Adelaide: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW cat no. INJCAT 35). Cripps RA. Horse-related injury in Australia. Australian Injury Prevention Bulletin 24, AIHW Cat. No. INJ26, May 2000. Research Centre for Injury Studies, Flinders University, 2000. O’Connor P & Cripps RA 1999. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) surveillance issues: a discussion paper. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. O’Connor P, Bordeaux S, Cripps RA 1999. Assembly of statistical information on road crashes and road injury in rural and remote areas of South Australia. Adelaide: Flinders University, Research Centre for Injury Studies. Cripps RA, O'Connor PJ. 1998. Spinal Cord Injury, Australia 1996/97. Australian Injury Prevention Bulletin 18, AIHW Cat. No. INJ013, April. Adelaide: Research Centre for Injury Studies, Flinders University of South Australia. Harrison J & Cripps RA 1994. Injury in Australia: an epidemiological review. Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health.

Project Title:	Role of latent equine herpesvirus infections in respiratory disease
RIRDC Project No.:	UMU-28A
Researcher:	Professor Graham Wilcox
Organisation:	Murdoch University
Phone:	08-9360 2448
Fax:	08-9360 6630
Email:	gwilcox@murdoch.edu.au
Objectives	The objectives of this project were an improved understanding of the pathogenesis and clinical implications of the gammaherpesviruses by a sequential study of these viruses in cohorts of foals from birth until post-weaning, and an improved understanding of equine herpesvirus latency, particularly latency of the gammaherpesviruses, requiring development of techniques to determine whether virus detected using molecular techniques was active or latent virus infections. Equine herpesviruses, as do all herpesviruses, persist in either neural or peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) following recovery from the initial acute virus infection. Further virus replication, resulting in shedding of virus and/or clinical disease, may follow virus reactivation by various stressors.
Background	Respiratory disease is an important cause of wastage in the horse racing industry. Viral respiratory disease is an important contributor to this wastage, with EHV 1 and 4 widely regarded as important pathogens. The clinical implications of two other equine herpesviruses, EHV2 and 5, are poorly understood: EHV2 has been implicated as a cause of respiratory disease, either directly or by rendering the affected horse at increased risk for secondary viral and/or bacterial pathogens; EHV5 has been recognised only recently and its potential contribution to respiratory disease in horses has not been evaluated. The future control of respiratory disease in horses will require an improved understanding of the clinico-virological aspects of equine herpesvirus infections utilising technology that has not previously been available and including evaluation of the role of EHV2 and 5 infections.
Research	The gammaherpesviruses EHV2 and EHV5 were commonly detected in foals prior to weaning but this was not associated with the onset of respiratory disease or other clinical signs. Post-weaning, there was a marked increase in the prevalence of both EHV2 and EHV5 in foals, presumably associated with reactivation of latent virus by stress, but this was also not associated with detectable clinical signs of disease. There were apparent differences in the duration and site of EHV2 and EHV5 infection: EHV2 appeared to produce a transient infection of the respiratory tract; in contrast, EHV5 infection persisted for longer in foals once it was detected, and it was detected most commonly in PBL rather than in swabs taken from the respiratory tract. Initial studies indicate this persistent EHV5 infection was associated with latent infection of PBL. Studies on the development of a type-specific serological test for EHV2 and alternative methods of differentiating active and latent gammaherpesvirus infection are continuing. In the small breeding establishments examined, no evidence of EHV1 or EHV4 infection was detected in foals prior to or during the post-weaning period.
Outcomes	An improved understanding of the gammaherpesvirus EHV2 and EHV5 infections in foals pre-weaning and at weaning.
Implications	This project has shown that a low prevalence of equine herpesviruses EHV2 and EHV5 are present in foals prior to weaning and these appear to be activated and increase in prevalence in association with the stress of weaning but this is not necessarily associated with the onset of respiratory disease or other clinical disease.
Publications	Wang, L. (2004) An association between equine herpesviruses and respiratory disease in racehorses in Western Australia. PhD Thesis. Murdoch University.