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Rural Industries
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|| Introduction || Project listing|| Project Summaries ||
Australian honey has a reputation in the world market as being a premium quality product. It is produced over a large geographical area from a wide variety of flowering plants.
Seventy to eighty per cent of honey produced is from native flora, especially eucalypts growing on public, crown leasehold and freehold land. Australia produces about 26,000 tonnes of honey per year with an estimated gross value of production of about $37 million.
Domestic consumption is approximately 15,000 tonnes per year and the remainder is exported in prepack and bulk form, making Australia the world's fourth largest exporter of honey. In 1994-95 the gross value of production, including queen and package bees, beeswax, pollen and pollination, was $55 million.
In addition, the value of pollination to the Australian economy has been estimated at between $604 million and $1.2 billion.
Research Highlights for 1996-97
· Three perennial and two annual legumes were identified for honeybee
and pasture production as replacement species for blackberry and gorse.
· The FCAAA has accepted the "holistic stakeholder consultation"
approach developed by the Gill project for negotiation of bee access rights
to government and controlled forests.
· Identification of practices that contribute to honey metal content
has resulted in the introduction of new bulk containers and in-house apiarist
quality control by the two major packers.
· A positive reaction and high demand both from extension officers
and the private sector for a video commissioned on exotic mites and associated
Asian honeybees.
· Evaluation of Australian commercial honeybees for hygienic behaviour
to minimise chalkbrood disease.
DISAPPEARING DISORDER OF HONEY BEE COLONIES
Objective
· To describe the symptoms of the disorder and attempt to show the causative agent.
Background
Disappearing disorder is a honey bee brood disorder that has long been reported from colonies in north east NSW and south-east Queensland. Although occurring locally, the disorder can lead to significant losses.
Research
During 1994, three outbreaks of the disorder were examined in south-east Queensland, the first during early October in the Cunningham's Gap region, the second in late November/early December in the same region, and the third in late December in the ranges west of Caboolture. During each reported outbreak, symptoms were noted and samples of brood, pollen and honey were collected for laboratory analysis.
Outcomes
The symptoms of disappearing disorder were observed and clearly described. They were similar to those typically associated with European brood disorder, caused by Melissococcus pluton.
No specific pollen type was found to be consistently collected by colonies affected by the disorder and affected colonies in different localities were reported foraging on completely different floral sources. Even though some known pathogenic micro organisms were isolated from a number of affected larvae, no micro organisms were detected in the majority of affected larvae and no particular micrograms were consistently present in affected larvae collected during different outbreaks.
Nectar samples collected from colonies affected by the disorder in October 1994 and pollen samples collected from affected colonies during each reported outbreak at Caboolture in December 1994 showed significantly higher levels of trace elements, particularly zinc, than were detected in nectar and pollen samples collected in December 1994 from Caboolture.
These results suggest that disappearing disorder may result from unusually high levels of trace elements in pollen and nectar collected by colonies in the affected areas. Further studies are needed to determine which trace elements might be responsible.
Implications
These results suggest that trace elements should be considered in future studies on bee nutrition. The results are also relevant to the areas of human health and honey and pollen quality assurance.
RIRDC Project No: CSE-4H
RESEARCHER: Dr Denis Anderson
ORGANISATION: CSIRO Entomology GPO Box 1700
CANBERRA ACT 2601
PHONE: 02 6246 4001 FAX: 02 6246 4000
AUSTRALIAN HONEY IN DRY FOOD MIXES
Objective
· To determine if honey has a potential role in the retardation of the staling process.
Background
Honey is known to have an ability to bind moisture in food systems. When added to bakery products, honey adds sweetness and is said to improve texture and therefore increase shelf life. No studies have been published determining the effect of Australian honey on the bread staling process. Therefore this study was designed to assess the hypothesis that Australian iron bark honey has a greater effect on retarding the staling phenomena than either Gemsweet (a sugar syrup) or dried honey.
Research
The performance of honey as a retarding agent in a white pan bread formation was compared to a commercial sugar syrup, dried honey and a no sugar, no honey control. The honey and sugar syrup were added at various levels.
The level and rate of staling during storage was determined both by objective texture measurements and by sensory evaluation using taste panels.
Outcomes
The trial described in this report was unable to determine definitely one way or the other whether honey retarded the staling process under the conditions of the study. However, the results for the addition of 3% honey are very encouraging.
Another important result from this study is the strong correlation between taster score and texture measurement of the bread over storage time. That is, the panellists were able to detect the physical changes (as measured by texture analysis) in term of the eating qualities of the loaf. This demonstrates that sensory evaluation is a reliable analytical tool when used to study changes in the texture of a bread loaf during the staling process. A poster presentation entitled The use of sensory evaluation to determine changes in bread texture during the staling process was presented at an international sensory science seminar held in Sydney in November 1996.
The project is continuing as part of a PhD study. A further trial has been recently been completed. This trial is a repeat of the study in this report but with less treatments to reduce the complexity and to aid the statistical determination of significant difference. The results of this trial will determine the future direction of the project.
RIRDC Project No: UQ-54A
RESEARCHER: Nola Caffin
ORGANISATION: Department of Food Science & Technology University of
Queensland Gatton College LAWES QLD 4343
PHONE: 074 601 177 FAX: 074 601 171
BENEFITS OF SECURE ACCESS TO PUBLIC LANDS AND THEIR MELLIFEROUS RESOURCES
Objectives
· To provide an objective assessment of the implications to the beekeeping industry and society of non-secure access to conserved lands and of those policy processes that have been applied to consider this issue to date. · To specify an objective and 'holistic' approach to developing beekeeper access policy that will provide a balanced accounting of interrelated ecological, economic and societal considerations.
Background
Security of access for beekeepers to conserved lands (national parks and state forests) is the single most important issue facing the beekeeping industry at the moment. The recent trend is for access to be denied or to be phased out with the existing generation of beekeepers, motivated almost entirely by concerns over the perceived adverse impacts of beekeeping activity on the ecosystems involved.
The scientific community has devoted considerable attention to documenting the possible impacts of apiary activity on natural ecosystems in recent years. The results have been almost invariably inconclusive. The major problems have been to do with the variable and complex nature of those ecosystems and in isolating the specific impacts of managed honeybees. It is likely that further 'partial' scientific investigation on the same issue will be similarly inconclusive, and is, therefore, of questionable value to the general community.
Research
The first part of the project involved an extensive review of recent scientific and economic research on the implications of beekeeping activity on the ecological integrity and economic value of conserved lands (National Parks and other public natural reserves). Of equal importance, was a review of policy processes that have been applied to decide on beekeeper access arrangements.
The final report was highly critical of current methods for dealing with the access issue and specified a revised process for developing a more 'holistically' considerable policy with a strong foundation on community and industry participation and consultation.
In terms of methods, the key elements included the application of a highly user friendly and participation orientated 'modelling' approach known as system dynamics and a theoretical basis in the territories of learning organisations and ecological economics.
Outcomes
The key observation from this research is that more is unknown about the problem than known. There is no unequivocal scientific evidence to support or reject claims of adverse ecological impact from beekeeping activity on public lands.
The economic evidence is similarly limited. The economic consequences of policies designed to restrict access are likely to be very large and severe, largely described in terms of 'secondary' impacts on related agricultural activities with a high degree of dependence on effective honeybee pollination. In this environment of poor information, a stakeholder driven approach is required to support the consideration of policy/management alternatives.
The detailed project report outlines an appropriate stakeholder driven mechanism for the joint consideration of key policy operatives and industry interests. It is noted the recommended process will probably involve a considerable reorientation of thinking in many of those organisations currently managing beekeeper access arrangements. That can be facilitated through carefully managed industry and community pressure. The lessons presented by those industry organisations which have had some success in the negotiation of reasoned access arrangements are a valuable input in this regard.
Implications
Those public agencies intent on removing beekeeper access to conserved public land would be hard pressed to justify their decision on the sole basis of prevailing scientific evidence. In addition, there is economic evidence to suggest the welfare of the general community could be reduced if access is to be permanently removed.
The major need is for a more consultative and community empowered approach to policy decision making in this regard. An appropriate process is specified in the final report for this project. The prevailing trend to remove beekeeper access is probably the most significant contemporary threat to the continued viability of the Australian beekeeping industry: an industry which creates much more in the way of unpriced benefits to pollination dependant agricultural industries and their related service sectors and support communities than the value of its primary honey product.
RIRDC Project No: UNE-46A
RESEARCHER: Dr Roderic Gill
ORGANISATION: Resource Systems Management Consulting "Camusfearna"
Chandler Road ARMIDALE NSW 2350
PHONE: 067 751 709 FAX: 067 751 710
EMAIL: rgill@metz.une.edu.au
PRODUCTION OF A VIDEO ON EXTERNAL EXOTIC HONEY BEE PARASITES
Objective
· To produce an educational video which will allow external exotic parasites to be identified by Australian beekeepers and to show the impact they would have on the Australian apiculture industry.
Background
The Australian beekeeping industry is dependent on disease freedom so certification requirements imposed by the states and overseas countries can be met. The serious threat facing the industry are exotic parasites of honey bee Varroa, Tropilaelaps, and Trachael Mites.
Furthermore, if the parasites enter Australia control measures would require the use of miticides that, if misused, could contaminate hive products. Exotic races of bees can also carry the parasites.
The production of an educational video will allow beekeepers to recognise the parasites so eradication may be possible. The video will also enable beekeepers to recognise exotic races of bees likely to carry parasites.
Research
The video production team travelled to Thailand to video footage of exotic parasites and races of bees with the cooperation of Dr Michael Burgett, an expert on mites from America and staff at the University of Chiang Mai in Northern Thailand. The video script was written by all State Departments of Agriculture, CSIRO, Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, Dr Michael Burgett and the Honeybee Research and Development Committee. Production was by NSW Agriculture Video production unit.
Outcomes
The video will enable beekeepers to identify the honeybee parasites Varroa (Varroa jacobsoni), Trachael Mites (Acarapis woodi intemo) and Tropilaelaps (Tropilaelaps clareae).
Exotic Races of Bees · Asian Honeybee (Apis cerana) · Giant Honeybee (Apis dorsata) · Dwarf Honeybee (Apis florea)
For each parasite the video shows the relationship of the parasite with various races of bees and the parasite's world distribution, biology of the parasites on European Honeybees, how to inspect hives, how they spread and control measures should they enter Australia.
The video outlines the strict quarantine surveillance at points of entry and the use of detector dogs. A section also covers how honeybees can be legally imported into Australia with approval from the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. The video runs for twenty minutes but a section can be played on each parasite.
Implications
Beekeepers viewing the video will be able to identify the exotic parasites and races of bees and be able to contact the right authorities should they see them in Australia. Quick detection gives a better chance of eradication.
RIRDC Project No: DAN-139A
RESEARCHER: Bruce White
ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 11
WINDSOR NSW 2756
PHONE: 045 770 600 FAX: 045 770 650
VIDEO: The video is available from NSW Agriculture, Locked Bag 21 Orange 2800 Phone (063) 913 433, or 1800 028 374. Time 20 minutes. Cost $30.00. Post paid.
NATURAL RESOURCES DATABASE FOR THE NSW APIARY INDUSTRY
Objective
· To test the methodologies of conducting a survey of NSW beekeepers to ultimately compile a floral resource database for the NSW apiary industry.
Background
NSW comprises between 40% and 45% of the Australian beekeeping industry and its reliance on a range of floral species is imperative for its survival. A steering committee was formed to determine what direction this research project should take and what detail would be achievable in conducting a statewide survey of all 450 commercial beekeepers in NSW.
Research
Twenty beekeepers were selected on the basis of their likelihood to contribute to the development of the project, their geographic distribution and the range of operations.
These 20 beekeepers account for 13,610 hives (NSW Agriculture, Beekeeper Registration System, June 1996).
| Hive Number Range | 200-400 | 401-600 | 601-1000 | 1001-1500 | 1501-200 |
| Pilot Study Beekeepers | 7 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 1 |
This sub group also encompasses areas outside of honey production, including package bee production, queen bee production, paid pollination and comb honey production.
Survey forms were sent to the 20 beekeepers in July 1996. Follow up occurred during August and September. The completed survey returns were checked and coded. Each floral resource was allocated a code prior to the Resource Information section of NSW Agriculture entering and mapping the data.
Outcomes
The results of the pilot project were: 13 responses from 20 surveyed, although one response was only partly completed. Of the 13 responses, the number of species listed range from 4 to 53.
Four responses from beekeepers with 400 hives or less ranged from 4, 6 and 36 species. Six responses from beekeepers with 500-800 hives listed 23, 34, 43, 24 and 45 species. Three responses from beekeepers with over 1000 hives indicated 53, 18 and 10 species.
From the 12 responses, sites are primarily in private property. (One survey did not fill out cover sheet.)
| Beekeepers | Total Hives | State Forest | National Parks | Crown Land | Rural Lands | Private Property |
| 12 | 8400 | 312 | 21 | 16 | 137 | 937 |
Total number of sites = 1423. A number of responses mention that sites are often used for more than one species.
Implications
Considering this is a very small sub group of the NSW apicultural industry, it is not justified in drawing conclusions in relation to how important various land tenures are to the industry.
Lessons learnt in the pilot survey include:
· One beekeeper did not fill in the locality section of the survey
form as he and another (not received) felt that this information took a
lifetime to accumulate and did not feel it in their best interests to divulge
such information.
· Personal communication with a number of beekeepers indicated that,
to fill out the survey properly, it was taking anything from two to four
hours and the level of detail required was not clear.
· The survey of all producers in NSW will be modified as a result of this exercise.
RIRDC Project No: DAN-153A
RESEARCHER: Doug Somerville
ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 389 GOULBURN NSW 2580 PHONE: 048 230
619 FAX: 048 223 261
EMAIL: somervd@agric.nsw.gov.au
PUBLICATIONS: Somerville, D (1997). A Pilot Study for Natural Resources Database for the NSW Apiary Industry. Final Report for RIRDC, February 1997.
USING SWARMING ACOUSTICS OF HONEY BEES TO CLEAR HONEY SUPERS OF HONEYBEES
Objectives
· To construct an electronic acoustic device to imitate the
'buzz run', 'whirring run' or 'schwirrlauf' effect of honey bee swarming
behaviour.
· To test the device in an observation chamber.
· To test the device in the apiary.
The bulk of the time of this project was allocated to Curtin University of Technology researchers to design, construct and laboratory test a device that mimics the swarming frequencies of honey bees.
Background
Chemical repellents such as Phenol (Carbolic Acid) and Benzaldehyde, were used by beekeepers to assist in the removal of honey from beehives. This practice was not recommended by the Western Australian Department of Agriculture in February 1993 due to risks of contamination.
The Honey Corporation of Australia had also issued a notice to all its members that no chemical of any nature is to be used to clear honey supers after April 1993.
The Honey Packers and Marketers Association of Australia (along with most other packers) also requested their members to move in the same direction. Subsequently, beekeepers had to resort to using clearerboards which had been around for a number of years and hand brushing bees off honey combs. At the same time electric air blowers were available and with a little modification have also become part of the process of removing honey from beehives.
Each of these three methods consume more of beekeepers time than the previous chemical method. Another method described below may offer a new way of clearing the bees from supers. The process involves simulating swarming behaviour in honey bees and when used within the honey super may encourage honey bees to vacate the super.
Research
The project differed from most other published research by attempting to use acoustics to control honey bee behaviour rather than just analysing and interpreting the acoustics of honey bees.
Curtin University of Technology was successful in developing a device that could imitate any sound that a honey bee(s) made during swarming or during any other behavioural response. The device used the latest computer technology and software available.
The project identified that honey bees are able to generate sounds up to 11 Khz at -60 dB which is much greater than the 5 Khz previously published by other researchers. Experiments indicated that the behaviour of honey bees could be controlled (but not by acoustics alone) though a combination of acoustics, queen bee (presence or pheromone) and air movement seem to be useful components in future research.
Outcomes
The status of the current project was such that the development of the equipment was able to technically fulfil the objectives of the project but not as yet, repeat the biological aspects as was hoped for. As an extension of our findings, further experimental work is planned.
It is probably a 'first' in honey bee acoustic research that the latest computer technologies have been used, certainly nothing in the latest published research indicates the use of such equipment as was used in this project. The technology has the potential of advancing the research into acoustics of honey bee swarming behaviour.
Implications
There is potential to further develop the use of this new computer technology as it relates to honey bee acoustics. Further research would probably require some 'pure' science which also, unfortunately, comes with protracted hours of research and the 'best' place for further development would be at honours, Masters or PhD student level at Universities.
RIRDC Project No: DAW-69A
RESEARCHERS: Robert Manning BSc (Biol) Honours; Dr. Halit Eren BEng,
MEng, PhD, MIEEE, MIEE, Ceng; Dr. Stephen Ho BEng, MEng, PhD, MIEEE; and
Dr Lynne Whiffler PhD
ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No 4 BENTLEY DELIVERY
CENTRE WA 6983
PHONE: 08 9368 3567 FAX: 08 9474 2479
EMAIL: rmanning@aidpo.agric.wa.gov.au
PUBLICATION: Eren, H., Whiffler, L and Manning R. (1997) Electronic sensing and identification of queen bees in honeybee colonies. IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Ottawa, Canada.
QUALITY SURVEY OF INTRODUCED HONEYS
Objective
· To examine some international honeys for the presence of chemical residues, and honeybee disease agents, and gather preliminary information on the microbiological quality of international honeys.
Background
The continued viability of the Australian honeybee industry depends upon a strong domestic market, and the ability to export high quality honey. Imports of cheap honey of unknown quality would have significant effects throughout the industry, and may introduce disease agents which the Australian industry is attempting to control.
Research
Forty-two honey samples representing 19 countries were selected from honeys collected at the Brisbane International Airport by AQIS staff. The samples were tested for residues, honeybee disease agents and microbial flora.
Outcomes
Seventy-six percent of the 42 international honeys screened either contained honeybee disease agents (American foulbrood, Chalkbrood) greater than the recommended numbers of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, moulds) or detectable chemical residues (phenol, antibiotics). This supports the AQIS policy in confiscating honey entering Australia.
Implications
A benchmark has been established against which the quality of Australian honeys can be compared. Further work appears required to implement standard techniques for the enumeration of microbiological flora in honey.
RIRDC Project No: DAQ-202A
RESEARCHERS: Mr K F Trueman, Ms W H Ward, Mr H Mawhinney ORGANISATION:
Department of Primary Industries Animal Research, Institute Locked Mail
Bag No 4 MOOROOKA QLD 4105
PHONE: 07 3362 9484 FAX: 07 3362 9440
EMAIL: truemaf@dpi.qld.gov.au
PUBLICATIONS True K F, Ward W 1-1 and Mawhinney I-1 (1996). International Honeys - A Quality Survey. Report to RIRDC. Department of Primary Industries, Qld.
EVALUATION OF HONEYBEES FOR HYGIENIC BEHAVIOUR
Objectives
· To speed the development of hygienic honey bee genotypes
and adoption of these genotypes into the commercial bee population and
thereby minimise the effects of chalkbrood disease on the honey and queen
breeding industries.
· To determine, under standardised conditions, the level of genetic
variance in hygienic behaviour in Australian honey bees.
Background
Chalkbrood is a disease of honey bees that introduced to Australia in 1993. The objective of this experiment was to determine whether Australian commercial bees showed the ability to efficiently clean out dead brood. Work in the United States has shown that colonies that clean out dead brood within 24 hours never show symptoms of chalkbrood.
Research
Ten untested queen bees were purchased from queen producers and beekeepers in NSW, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria. (Queens could not be purchased from Queensland because of quarantine restrictions).
Ten strains were tested. Queens were introduced standardised colonies. On three occasions, a square of freeze-killed brood containing 100 cells was introduced to all colonies. The number of dead pupae removed by the bees was counted after 48 hours, 5 days and 7 days from the time the dead brood was introduced.
Outcomes
The results showed a huge variation in the speed with which Australian bees cleaned out dead brood. Three strains were somewhat hygienic, while most were not sufficiently hygienic to prevent disease. The same three strains were hygienic in tests conducted in early summer, mid summer and autumn, despite very different honey flow conditions.
Implications
The results mean that if hygienic breeding stock is used by queen producers, untested daughters will be sufficiently hygienic to prevent chalkbrood. Queen producers should be encouraged to identify hygienic bees for breeding stock.
RIRDC Project No: ULA-2H
RESEARCHER: Dr. Ben Oldroyd
ORGANISATION: School of Biological Sciences LaTrobe University PHONE: 02
9351 7501 FAX: 02 9351 4771
EMAIL: boldroyd@bio.usyd.edu.au
PUBLICATIONS: Oldroyd, B.P. (1996) Evaluation of Australian commercial honey bees for hygienic behaviour, a critical character for tolerance to chalk brood. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 36: 625-629.
PRODUCTION OF A VIDEO ON CHALKBROOD DISEASE
Objectives
· To produce a video on Chalkbrood disease. The approach is considered to be an ideal method of transferring information on symptoms of the disease and control methods beekeepers in Australia can consider, to reduce the impact of this disease on their apiary businesses.
Background
Chalkbrood was discovered in Australia in January 1993. It was vital beekeepers be given information on video about this disease so they could recognise the symptoms and take measures to reduce the impact.
Research
The video was produced in the Central West of NSW with the cooperation of a commercial beekeeper, and the script by NSW Agriculture in consultation with other states CSIRO and the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. Production was by NSW Agriculture's video production unit.
Outcomes
This video enables beekeepers to identify the symptoms of Chalkbrood, and transfers knowledge of the disease to beekeepers. It also outlines measures beekeepers can take to reduce the impact of this disease, outlines the epidemiology of this disease, and how to correctly examine hives to detect this disease.
Implications
Beekeepers viewing the video will be able to identify chalkbrood and understand this disease.
RIRDC Project No: DAN-21H
RESEARCHERS: Bruce White, Phillip McLellan, Dr Michael Hornitzky
ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 11 WINDSOR NSW 2756 PHONE: 045
770 600 FAX: 045 770 650
EMAIL: white br@agric.nsw.gov.au
VIDEO: This video is available from NSW Agriculture, Locked Bag 21 Orange 2800 Phone (063) 913 433, or 1800 028 374. The video runs for ten minutes at a cost of $25.00. Post paid.
Objectives
· To measure the seed/yield increase in faba beans by the
controlled use of honey bees.
· To evaluate the value of faba bean pollen to the nutritional requirements
of honey bees.
Background
This project was instigated due to the lack of knowledge of the pollination requirements of faba beans grown under Australian conditions. There was a certain amount of conflicting information available to both growers and beekeepers, such do managed honey bees benefit crop yields via increased pollination.
The previous research in Australia was not primarily aimed at this question. A significant amount of research overseas indicates the value of honey bees in faba bean pollination.
This project was therefore designed to determine whether honey bees were beneficial in growing faba bean crops under Australian conditions, and at the same time to ascertain the impact of the crop on the management of commercial bees.
Research
The trial was conducted between August and November 1993 at Darlington Point in the Riverina region of NSW on a 32.5 ha crop of faba beans of the variety Fiord. Four treatments replicated five times. The treatments were as follows:
Treatment 1: Random plot in crop (control). Open to bees (uncaged
control). Treatment 2: Cage with bees enclosed.
Treatment 3: Cage without bees (no bee access).
Treatment 4: Cage with shade effect only open sides to access to honey
bees.
Thirty two 10-frame strong double hives were placed alongside the crop on 28 August, 1993 when approximately 5% of flowers were open. At the same time, a nucleus colony was placed inside each of the five designated cages (treatment 2). These nucleus colonies were given a supply of water for the duration of the trial.
Harvesting of plots took place from 13-17 December 1993. This was done by randomly selecting a 2m length of one row 1m wide within each cage, removing the plants. The stalks and pods of each plant were counted and the beans were shelled and weighed.
Outcomes
The results indicated that insect activity on the flowering plant increased yields. Under the conditions of this trial, yield was increased by 24%. This supports many of the research findings in other countries. Also, pods were set the full length of the plant in cages with bees, in contrast to pods set only towards the top half of the plant in cages without bees.
The results on honey bee nutrition were encouraging because the nutrition levels of the bee collected pollen were at a desirable level to supply to colonies requirements. The colonies built up and expanded quite rapidly in the early half of the trial, without any detrimental impact on the crude body protein levels of adult bees.
The main drawback with honey bees working this crop is the lack of available nectar in the faba bean flower because of the shape of the flower.
Implications
To guarantee that pollinating insects are not a yield limiting factor when growing faba beans, it is strongly recommended that managed bee hives are moved into the crop when in flower. Management of colonies for swarming should be a priority when honey bees are working faba beans in the early spring, due to the low nectar availability and reasonable quality pollen encouraging rapid build up. Beekeepers should be aware of any chemicals applied to the crop while the faba beans are in flower and take the necessary steps to reduce any risk to honey bee colonies.
RIRDC Project No: DAN-19H
RESEARCHER: Doug Somerville
ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 389 GOULBURN NSW 2580 PHONE: 048 230
619 FAX: 048 223 261
EMAIL: somervd@agric.nsw.gov.au
PUBLICATIONS: Somerville, D (1995). Pollination of Faba Beans. Final Report. DAN 19H. May 1995. Somerville, D (1994). Honey Bees in Faba Bean Pollination. Agnote Reg 4/72. NSW Agriculture. August. Somerville, D (1996). Faba Beans. Proceedings of 4th Annual Conference, Crop Pollination Association. Horsham. 3rd August.
ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF AUSTRALIAN HONEYS
Objectives
· To carry out a preliminary assessment of the antimicrobial
potential of Australian honeys.
· To develop a rapid and inexpensive system for the routine screening
of honey for antimicrobial properties.
Background
Two major agents have been shown to be responsible for the anti-microbial activity in honey: hydrogen peroxide (from the bee), and uncharacterised chemical substances (from the floral source).
Manuka honey from New Zealand is collected by bees from the flowers of a particular species of Leptospermum tree and has been described as "the best natural antibiotic in the world". Previous research has shown that Australian honeys possess anti-bacterial activity.
Research
Some 400 honeys were sourced from around Australia and screened against several reference micro-organisms to determine anti-microbial activity. Research recently completed at the Centre for Food Technology has shown that Australian honeys possess similar properties to Manuka honey. Honeys were screened using agar diffusion assays and microtitre turbidity assay systems.
Outcomes
The potency of Australian honey is at least on a par with New Zealand Manuka honey. Chemical comparison using GC-MS has shown that the New Zealand Manuka and the Australian Jelly Bush honeys are very similar. This is not very surprising since both honeys are derived from Leptospermum trees.
Implications
It is known that the Egyptians used honey as a therapeutic agent. This project has shown that the potential exists to value-add to the existing honey resource by developing products with therapeutic benefit. The potential use of these novel honeys in the treatment and management of moist wounds (eg. burns and ulcers) will require further research.
RIRDC Project No: DAQ-204A
RESEARCHER: Dr Craig Davis
ORGANISATION: Centre for Food Technology Queensland Department of Primary
Industries 19 Hercules Street HAMILTON QLD 4007
PHONE: 07 3406 8611 FAX: 07 3406 8677
EMAIL: davisck@dpi.qld.gov.au
IMPACT OF COMMERCIALLY MANAGED HONEYBEES ON FLORA AND FAUNA
Objective
· To measure the impact of commercially managed honeybees on selected native flora and fauna in Ngarkat Conservation Park, SA, during winter. This will assist in formulating management strategies that will allow continued use of natural resources by honeybees while maximising the conservation of the natural system.
Background
The continued use of floral resources by commercial apiarists in reserves conflicts with the primary purpose of those reserves - the conservation of endemic wildlife. Land managers continually review their policies on access for beekeepers to conserved lands because of a concern that continued presence of honeybees may be detrimental. There are limited data on which sensible decisions can be made. In South Australia, Ngarkat Conservation Park is an important over-wintering site for honeybees.
This project aimed to measure the responses of native flora and fauna to experimental introductions of beehives to remote parts of Ngarkat Conservation Park during winter when Banksia ornata was flowering.
Research
The research involved selecting 15 sites (each at least 3 km away from any other site) within the central part of Ngarkat Conservation Park. Most of this area had had no previous history of commercially managed honeybees and densities of feral colonies were negligible (0.001 colonies/ha). Some of the sites then received commercial loads of honeybees in one or more seasons and the responses of native biota to those manipulations were measured.
Amongst the taxa considered were nectar-feeding birds, small mammals, native bees and several other groups of flower-visiting insects, including ants and staphylinid beetles. The research also involved measuring the production and availability of floral resources and seed production by the plants.
Outcomes
In most winters there was surplus nectar being produced by Banksia ornata in Ngarkat Conservation Park and surplus pollen, and the explanation for this was that there were insufficient native fauna present in the reserve to exploit all the resources.
The introduction of commercial loads of honeybees into the reserve did not affect the numbers of native fauna living in the reserve during winter but did result in a substantial increase in seed production for Banksia ornata. At sites without honeybees, seed production by Banksia ornata ranged from 3.7 to 7.3 seeds per inflorescence over three years. Seed production at sites stocked with honeybees, however, was significantly higher ranging from 8.3 to 10.9 seeds per inflorescence over the same period.
Excluding honeybees from this reserve might now be detrimental to the long term survival of Banksia ornata, which reproduces after fire only by seed. Plans to exclude beekeeping from this reserve might be inappropriate.
Nevertheless the above results should not be blindly extrapolated to other sites. All that has been demonstrated is that there is no detrimental impact of honeybees on the flora and fauna of Ngarkat Conservation Park during the 2-3 month winter period when Banksia ornata blooms and when apiarists need access. Simple techniques were developed during this study to assess the availability of floral resources at Banksia inflorescences and the results of this study may also apply to other areas dominated by winter-flowering Banksias. In general, extrapolation to other areas outside the winter period should be done with caution.
RIRDC Project No: UA-IH
RESEARCHER: Dr David Paton
ORGANISATION: Department of Zoology University of Adelaide ADELAIDE SA
5005
PHONE: 08 8228 4742 FAX: 08 8223 5817
PUBLICATIONS: Paton, D.C. (1995). Impact of honeybees on the flora and fauna of Banksia heathlands in Ngarkat Conservation Park. SASTA Journal 95: 3-1 1. Paton, D.C. (1996). Overview of the impacts of feral and managed honeybees in Australia: distribution, abundance, extent of interactions with native biota, evidence of impacts and future research. Aust. Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. 71 pp. Paton, D.C. (1997). Honey bees Apis mellifera and the disruption of plant-pollinator systems in Australia. Vic. Nat. 114: 23- 29
INTRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF REPLACEMENT SPECIES FOR BLACKBERRY IN TASMANIA
Objective
· To introduce and evaluate a range of perennial legumes that have potential as honey producers and may be considered as a replacement for blackberry in Tasmania.
Background
European blackberry is an important resource in the production of Tasmania's white honey. White honey consists of clover and blackberry flora. If blackberry was lost from the industry, 15 out of the 235 beekeepers that use blackberry would absorb 97% of the industry's financial loss. If blackberry was completely removed, the industry would suffer a loss of $277,000 and five full-time beekeepers who work in the major areas would suffer individual income losses of between $4,000 and $88,000.
Research
Perennials From mid 1991 through to January 1993 a range of perennial legumes known to have potential as honey bee plants were introduced into Australia, principally from southern Europe and western North America. As the amount of seed per accession was very small (often less than 10 seeds) the plants were first established in small pots until they had attained sufficient size to be transplanted into the field. This occurred during February/March 1993 and growth has been monitored since then.
Annuals The Crops branch, DPIF, forage legume introduction program provided the majority of the species tested. From March 1993 until March 1994 a collection of 137 Lathyrus, Lupinus and Vicia species were grown in 5m rows at the Mt Pleasant Laboratories. During this time the plants were examined during the flowering period to establish the number of bees actively foraging.
Outcomes
A total of 103 perennial and 137 annual legumes have been assembled and evaluated for attractiveness to honey bees. Four species have been selected for further evaluation, namely Dorycnium hirsutum, D. pentaphyllum, Vicia cracca and V. villosa. Drought conditions during 1993 and 1994 greatly reduced the amount of seed produced.
Vicia cracca is currently being evaluated for honey production by the Wynyard High School and the NW Tasmanian Beekeepers' Association and by a professional beekeeper near Deloraine. Half a hectare of Vicia villosa was grown and the result indicates that commercial quantities of a high quality, distinctive flavoured, fight honey can be produced from broad acreage sowing of Vicia villosa. Dorycnium spp. have been planted in a trial block near Swansea on Tasmania's East Coast.
Extension includes meetings with the Tasmanian Beekeeping Association (TBA), North West TBA, interviews on ABC Country Program and television and a jointly managed site of 1,000 plants involving the Wynyard High School, North West beekeepers and Forestry Commission.
RIRDC Project No: DAT 2H
RESEARCHER: Robert Reid ORGANISATION: Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural
Research PO Box 46 KINGS MEADOWS TAS 7249
PHONE: 03 6336 5449 FAX: 03 6344 4961
Objective
· To assist honey to maintain its image as a quality natural product by identifying those areas of production that may adversely affect quality assurance accreditation.
Background
Little is known of the influence of management procedures on metal levels in honey and beeswax and the effect they may have on quality accreditation. Current bulk honey containers were introduced 30 years ago, and whilst extraction plants have been upgraded the original bulk containers are still in use. Their metal related suitability was compared to alternative containers.
Research
During honey extraction eleven apiarists collected random comb and settling tank samples before filling washed waxed, unwashed waxed, washed galvanised, unwashed galvanised and 316, 304 and 430 grade stainless steel drums. The drums were sampled on arrival at the packing plant, stored for 3-6 months, heated, rolled and resembled. This honey and beeswax and specific and spot samples from an additional eight apiarists was analysed using the ICP - MS4 method for aluminium, chromium, nickel, zinc, copper, lead, cadmium, iron, mercury, arsenic and selenium.
Outcomes
Honey mean metal levels were below the Australian maximum permitted concentrations (MPC). Levels of known dangerous metals were very low and often below the level of detection. Zinc, iron and aluminium were below MPC but warrant industry attention. Aluminium was associated with unsatisfactory fumigation procedures. The current move to alternative comb storage (eg. coldrooms) removes any health implications associated with fumigation. Zinc results do not support the continued use of galvanised drums and whilst beeswax lining reduced zinc levels in year 1, it is considered a possible interim measure only pending determination of the future direction of bulk containers. Suppliers' newsletters from two packing houses confirm action was taken following the interim reports to minimise possible metal effects on honey quality. Beeswax contained higher levels of metals, some as a result of old processing procedures. Modern wax processing plant and moulds should be installed to minimise wax metal levels.
RIRDC Project No: GK-1A
RESEARCHER: Graham Kleinschmidt.
Research participants from QLD, NSW, VIC, SA
ORGANISATION: PO Box 109 MOFFAT BEACH QLD 4551
PHONE: 07 5491 8389 FAX: 07 5491 9062
PUBLICATIONS: Kleinschmidt GJ. (1996) 'Keeping Apiary Products Natural', Australian Beekeeper 98 (1): 18,25, Australian Bee Journal 77 (7): 16 - 18
Last updated: 22 October1997
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