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Rural Industries
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|| Introduction || Project listing|| Project Summaries ||
During the past two years, RIRDC has funded R&D for twelve of the 30 prospective and emerging animal-based industries from which RIRDC receives submissions or enquiries regarding R&D funding. The annual value of products traded from these industries exceeds $150 million. For each of these, production is increasing and/or processing and value-added products and resources are being established. Much effort is being made to extend and increase export marketing.
During the past year, there has been greater interest in R&D on sustainable usage of native and feral animals in conjunction with commercialisation, particularly for export markets. Quality and safety assurance are becoming marketing requisites and R&D is being increasingly required to underpin both on-farm and value-added commercial activities.
Research Highlights for 1996-97
DESIGNING A RESEARCH FACILITY FOR GROWER SIZE CROCODILES
Objectives
Background
RIRDC convened a workshop in 1995 at which crocodile farmers from throughout Australia met with researchers to discuss research issues and to identify priority R&D needs. The highest priorities were 'production' issues and effects of these on growth rates, skin quality and disease incidence.
The Queensland Department of Primary Industries (DPI) has established a research facility for 'juvenile' saltwater crocodiles (hatching to one year of age) in Townsville but there are no research facilities in Australia for larger 'grower' sized animals (one year old to harvest size). DPI set aside finances to build a second facility but it was recognised that 'grower' sized crocodiles posed special problems in terms of rearing and handling, and also in the types of pens and rooms necessary in such a facility. Any such structure had to be designed so that statistically valid research experiments could be carried out.
Research
In order to develop the most appropriate design for such a facility
a series of activities was undertaken:
· a study of commercial open-style 'grower' sheds and pens used
by farmers in Australia;
· a study of enclosed, fully insulated rearing sheds used by alligator
farmers in the USA;
· discussions with researchers in the USA who have had experience
with large size alligators;
· several planning / discussion sessions with Australian farmers
and researchers; and · deciding on the best functional design and
drawing up building plans.
Outcomes
The review of Australian farms provided useful information on the best types of pens to use and identified potentially useful research projects. The study tour of alligator facilities in the USA was crucial to the project. In particular a wide range of different fully insulated enclosed commercial alligator sheds was evaluated, and USA researchers suggested many useful ideas from their wealth of experience. Both the farmers and researchers in the USA were very cooperative and supportive of DPI's proposed R&D activities and were keen to set up a regular exchange of information.
At the conclusion of the USA tour two industry / research seminars were held (Townsville and Cairns) to discuss the extensive information collected and to focus on key issues relative to designing an optimal research building. At the Cairns meeting an 'industry advisory' group was established to continue more detailed planning with DPI and to advise on other crocodile R&D issues.
This group has met twice and DPI now has design plans drawn up for such a building. Essentially it will consist of an outer structural shed (18m x 17m) of colourbond enclosing 12 separate, well insulated rooms (each 6m x 3m). Each room will have its own carefully controlled environment and land / water areas suited to rearing larger grower size crocodiles. Construction will begin in the next few months and the first lot of 'grower' size crocodiles should be housed by September 1997.
Implications
The primary benefit of having a world-class research facility for grower crocodiles will be to the researchers who can target priority research areas and have confidence that such work can be successfully pursued in such a facility. Real benefits will then flow to the commercial farmers in that relevant research is being done and results extended immediately to industry.
RIRDC Project No: DAQ-220A
RESEARCHER: Mr R Mayer ORGANISATION: Dept of Primary Industries PO Box 1085 TOWNSVILLE QLD 4810 PHONE: 077 222 614 FAX: 077 782 970
REPRODUCING OSTRICH FADING SYNDROME
Objective
· To determine the cause of Ostrich Fading Syndrome by isolating a retrovirus from small intestine and leukocyte explant cultures of affected birds. This project was designed as an attempt to reproduce Ostrich Fading Syndrome using this retrovirus.
Background
Ostrich Fading Syndrome (OFS) is a newly recognised disease entity that occurred in ostrich chicks in Australia in February 1995. The syndrome consisted of wasting in chicks up to six months of age and usually ended in death.
Research
Experimental infection studies were conducted on ostrich chicks obtained from an interstate ostrich flock with no history of OFS and no recent introductions. Eggs were incubated in isolation, recently hatched chicks were transferred to animal isolation facilities at our laboratories and at 4 to 7 weeks of age, two groups of 6 chicks were inoculated orally or by subcutanious injection (s/c) with the virus. An additional 6 chicks were kept as isolated, uninoculated controls.
Outcomes
Surprisingly, a retrovirus was recovered from pre-inoculation leukocyte cultures from most chicks in all groups, suggesting the virus was latent in the flock of origin. There were only two birds that were free of virus prior to inoculation and both failed to develop clinical or pathological evidence of OFS. However, one bird in each of the oral and s/c inoculated groups, that had the virus prior to inoculation, developed some clinical features of OFS and two birds in the s/c group had microscopic lesions in the gut showing some features of OFS.
Implications
From the results of this project, we cannot presently say whether the virus has any causal role in the syndrome or is simply a latent passenger virus reactivated by in vitro culture. The role that this agent plays in OFS will require further investigation.
Future research will require the development of a sensitive and quicker diagnostic test to identify ostriches infected with this virus. We are currently attempting to develop a polymerase chain reaction diagnostic test for the virus based on conserved retrovirus polymerase gene sequences. This tool will improve the screening of birds prior to future experimental transmission studies and could be applied to epidemiological investigations of future outbreaks of OFS.
RIRDC Project No: DAW-71A
RESEARCHER: Mr Mark Kabay ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia 3 Baron-Hay Court SOUTH PERTH WA 6151 PHONE: 09 368 3351 FAX: 09 474 1881
PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/27, (1997). Reproducing Ostrich Fading Syndrome.
INCREASING THE HATCHABILITY OF OSTRICH EGGS
Objectives
To identify the principal causes of poor hatchability of ostrich eggs and to improve hatchability by: · examining large numbers of fail-to-hatch eggs and eggs containing large dead embryos (dead-in-shell); · developing a shell quality evaluation system; · investigating incubator and egg temperatures; · estimating dietary calcium requirements for laying ostrich hens; and · preparing and disseminating extension information.
Background
In the early 1990s, the Australian ostrich industry recognised that poor hatchability of artificially-incubated eggs was the greatest production-limiting factor facing the industry. Commencing in 1993, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation and the Australian Ostrich Association jointly funded a 3 year research project to address the issue of poor hatchability. It was thought that if causes of poor hatchability could be identified and were amenable to correction, a major improvement in production, greater profitability and earlier expansion of the industry would result.
Research and Outcomes
A large number of fail-to-hatch eggs were examined for shell quality, microbial infection and fertilisation failure. The most common cause of hatching failure was that eggs were infertile. Immaturity of cocks was identified as the leading contributor to infertility. The most important causes of early to mid stage embryonic death were microbial infection (mostly by faecal bacteria) and poor shell quality.
Eggs containing embryos which died in the late embryonic period (DIS) were investigated in detail. It was found that eggs containing DIS embryos were on average larger than successfully hatching eggs; that shells with excessive and inadequate porosity were over-represented; and that embryonic malposition, microbial infection and floating air cells were also commonly associated with DIS embryos.
A system whereby farmers could evaluate shell quality without recourse to sophisticated measurements was developed. Qualitative features such as shell surface finish (degree of glossiness) and surface texture (degree of roughness), and quantitative features (egg weight, estimated shell surface area, shell thickness, pore count and porosity parameters) were measured.
Dietary calcium requirements for laying ostrich hens were estimated. Dry shell were weighed to calculate calcium content. To meet calcium requirements for sustained egg production, hens need to consume approximately 2 kg of breeder pellets per day. Free access to a calcium supplement such as coarse shell grit in a separate feed container is suggested for all laying hens except those producing low weight loss eggs (<10%).
Incubator temperatures inside loaded incubators were measured accurately. Temperature is the single most important factor in incubation. Findings were that incubation temperature was dangerously high in some incubators and that others had "hot spots" or cool areas. An extension article detailing a practical protocol for setting, measuring and monitoring incubation temperature was published in an AOA Journal.
Hatchability-related extension information was prepared and disseminated. Two extension articles were published in the AOA Journal (see below). In addition, presentations were made at the AOA Conferences "Ostrich Odyssey" 1993 and 1994, at two field days in Victoria; and at Branch Conferences in Hobart and Perth.
Implications
Australian ostrich farmers are now in a better position to maximise hatchability of ostrich eggs using a combination of genetic selection and modified management. The importation of new bloodlines allows farmers to make use of hybrid vigour. Highly fertile cock birds three years or older and hens producing good quality eggs should be selected. Commercial breeder diets are now more scientifically formulated. Management of nest sites, promptness of egg collection and sanitation of eggs and incubator have all improved greatly in the past five years. Incubation management, including set temperature, humidity, air exchange and egg turning, are now much better understood. The efforts of farmers, commercial interests (feed companies, incubator manufacturers) and research such as the above have combined to make this possible.
RIRDC Project No: DAV 78A
RESEARCHER: Kit Button ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Department of Natural Resources and Environment 73 Calvert Street BAIRNSDALE VIC 3875 PHONE: 0351 520 600 FAX: 0351 526 865
PUBLICATIONS: Button K (1995). Increasing the hatchability of ostrich eggs; (1) Minimising the Infection Rate of Ostrich Eggs. Australian Ostrich Association Journal, Number 35 pp 35-39 Button K (1996). Increasing the hatchability of ostrich eggs; (2) Maximising Incubation Success. Australian Ostrich Association Journal, Number 38 pp 34-41 Button K (1996). Increasing the Hatchability of Ostrich Eggs; RIRDC Research Report 97/24
USE OF POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION TO STUDY ASPERGILLOSIS IN OSTRICHES
Objectives
· To use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to develop an assay for the detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in ostriches. · To analyse variation between strains of A. fumigatus isolated from ostriches.
Background
Aspergillosis is a widespread disease, occurring in most regions of the world, and affecting avian, mammalian and other species. In birds the disease usually presents as a respiratory infection, commonly chronic airsaculitis in ostriches, although acute forms are sometimes also encountered.
Aspergillosis is a disease of considerable economic significance to the Australian ostrich industry. The proposed test may enable the early detection of birds with the disease.
Research
Primers based on the sequences of the alkaline protease genes and ribosomal RNA genes of Aspergillus fumigatus were used in PCR assays to analyse cultures of Aspergillus fumigatus, oral swabs and blood samples taken from ostriches. PCR assays using primers based on alkaline protease genes successfully detected DNA prepared from cultures, but did not detect Aspergillus fumigatus in swabs or blood samples. The more sensitive assays using primers based on the ribosomal RNA genes, which are present in multiple copies, detected Aspergillus fumigatus in swabs from ostriches.
However, these assays failed to detect Aspergillus fumigatus in some samples from infected ostriches, and detected Aspergillus fumigatus in some samples from ostriches with no signs of infection. Genetic variation between isolates was also examined, and one isolate was found to differ considerably from all other isolates which were tested.
Outcomes
The project was successful in developing a PCR-based assay for the detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in oral swabs from ostriches, but the assay lacked both the sensitivity and specificity required for use as a reliable means of detecting early infection. Genetic variation was shown to exist between isolates, and this has potential for use in monitoring the spread of aspergillosis. Some of these findings have been published in the Australian Veterinary Journal, and a second manuscript is in preparation.
Implications
The results from this study indicate that the amount of Aspergillus fumigatus in the pharynx is very low, even in ostriches with substantial infection in the air sacs. Further work to improve the sensitivity and specificity of the assay is needed, perhaps by use of the technique of nested PCR. Blood samples may be more accessible than oral swabs, but substantial work is needed in this area.
RIRDC Project No: UNE-37A
RESEARCHER: Dr Margaret Katz ORGANISATION: University of New England Department of Animal Science ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 733 016 FAX: 067 733 275
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS OF ASPERGILLOSIS IN OSTRICHES
Objectives
· To improve currently available diagnostic tests, so that the disease could be diagnosed earlier and more accurately, and so improve treatment outcomes. · To investigate epidemiological aspects of aspergillosis in order to improve measures aimed at preventing the disease.
Background
Whether in human patients or animals, the diagnosis of aspergillosis, particularly an early diagnosis, is an ongoing problem. Early diagnosis is desirable because it improves the likelihood of successful treatment. The situations in animals such as ostriches is in some respects even more difficult because many of the diagnostic aids employed in human and small animal medicine are not practicable.
In human medicine in particular, there have been many efforts to improve serological diagnosis of aspergillosis, but not always with great success.
Aspergillosis, as with most diseases, is a multifactorial disease. As such, there are likely to be a number of host, agent and environmental factors that are important in the epidemiology of the disease in farmed ostriches.
Research and Outcomes
Three enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were developed, and two of these, the indirect ELISA for antibody, and the inhibition ELISA for antigen, were found to compare more than favourably with the currently available agar gel immunodiffusion test (Love, Wong, Gill and Hinch 1996)
A review of the literature on the epidemiology of aspergillosis showed that the risk factors for the disease are similar in the various avian, mammalian and other species studied. As an outcome of the project, these and other aspects of aspergillosis were summarised in an invited review paper (Love and Gill 1995b). Additionally, a survey of 400 ostrich farmers in Australia yielded basic epidemiological data, such as estimates of prevalence and incidence, information which was previously lacking in Australia or overseas.
Implications
Two of the assays developed are superior to the currently available serological test for aspergillosis in ostriches. The benefits of this development for the Australian ostrich industry can probably be enhanced further by investigating some of the suggested possibilities for improving the assays.
The epidemiology of aspergillosis in farmed ostriches is essentially similar to that of other species. The most significant advances in preventing and controlling the disease are likely to be in the area of farm management.
RIRDC Project No: UNE 38A
RESEARCHER: Dr Margaret Katz ORGANISATION: University of New England Department of Animal Science ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 733 016 FAX: 067 733 275
SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC USE OF NATIVE AUSTRALIAN BIRDS AND REPTILES
Objectives
· To review the potential for allowing expansion of current avicultural and herpetocultural industries within Australia. · To provide a scientific underpinning to any changes and improvements to policy including enhancement of animal welfare and conservation status. · To consider a controlled management regime that permits exports of captive-bred birds and reptiles; and that enables the export of wild birds or their offspring, providing it also enhances habitual protection and biodiversity.
Background
Some Australian native birds and reptiles which are common on the Australian market have high economic value in foreign markets because the commercial export of all live wild animal species, even budgerigars, is not permitted.
Research
Commercial data were collected and markets and prices overseas assessed. The views and comments were sought from all the government conservation, vertebrate pest and agricultural agencies, and a wide range of other institutions. In addition opinions on commercialisation from aviculturists and herpetologists, wildlife management societies, and animal welfare, conservation and preservation organisations were gathered.
Outcomes
The report outlines a management regime which has the ultimate aim of increasing wild populations of the less common species. This can be achieved by supplementing the intrinsic value of the species, where appropriate, with economic value through application of sustainable use.
The report also aims to remove some of the anomalies in current national policies on bird ownership and subsequent trade which have little conservation benefit. It does not propose the export of adult wild-caught 'pest' birds because of concerns about animal welfare.
Finally the conclusion was reached that enhanced conservation has to be stimulated by providing the correct incentives for private investment. For example, landowners must be given financial encouragement to protect and expand habits and considerations have to be given to captive breeding.
RIRDC Project No: ACI-2A
RESEARCHER: Dr George Wilson ORGANISATION: ACIL Economics & Policy Pty Ltd GPO Box 1322 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6249 8055 FAX: 02 6257 4170
PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/26, (1997). Sustainable Economic Use of Native Australian Birds and Reptiles. RIRDC Research Paper 97/26a, (Short Report), (1997). Sustainable Economic Use of Native Australian Birds and Reptiles.
KANGAROO & KANGAROO PRODUCTS AWARENESS, ATTITUDES AND USAGE BY AUSTRALIANS
Objective
· To analyse and assess perceptions of the kangaroo industry and its products and formulate strategies to exploit market opportunities.
Background
Legislation over recent years has allowed selling of kangaroo meat for human consumption in all states. Although the kangaroo which are harvested are part of a pest control measure and the meat has a healthy nutritional profile, negative attitudes persist. These include emotional and environmental concerns and perceived food safety threats. The project was designed to identify and formulate education and marketing means to mitigate the negatives.
Research
A survey of 100 randomly selected individuals was conducted from households in each of Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.
Outcomes
Most urban Australians have limited or no exposure to kangaroo meat. However, most Australians are prepared to at least try the meat or eat it again provided that their needs for information, recipes, cooking/preparation advice, ready availability, acceptable price etc are met.
Implications
Recommended options include promotional/ information/ education programs to improve product range and better distribution. Research consideration include market development, including working with chefs, restaurateurs etc to increase usage.
RIRDC Project No: Consultancy Project
RESEARCHER: Des Purtell ORGANISATION: Des Purtell & Associates Marketing and Research Consultants PO Box 921 CROWS NEST NSW 2065 PHONE: 02 9968 3095 FAX: 02 9231 3335
PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/36, (1997). Improving Consumer Perceptions of Kangaroo Products. IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT
REGULATIONS ON THE COMMERCIAL OPERATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN KANGAROO INDUSTRY
Objective
· To conduct an accurate review of all State and Federal Government policy initiatives, rules and regulations that have both a positive and negative impact on industry development.
Background
The Australian kangaroo industry in formulating its national industry strategic plan endorsed the position that: "The kangaroo industries are composed of all those sectors associated with the responsible and economically sustainable commercial utilisation of the renewable kangaroo resource. Those sectors include individuals and companies associated with the production, processing, manufacturing and marketing of kangaroo meats, skins, leather and manufactured products".
Research
A review of state and federal Government policies, rules, and regulations has been reported as positive and negative impacts on the development of the kangaroo industry. Policy consistencies and inconstancies have been identified across states in light of mutual recognition legislation and to determine the appropriate regulatory balance to ensure imperatives of kangaroo population conservation, rangeland maintenance, industry development and broad community interests are met in a systematic way.
It is assessed that Government regulates and manages the kangaroo population and the rangelands, agricultural, industry and community interests in isolation. An integrated approach is proposed for efficient and effective resource management and a regulatory framework that is consistent with sound resource management, industry viability and community interest.
Outcomes and Implications
A number of recommendations are given where regulatory framework between and within states needs to be rationalised. Management practices which need to be adopted include: · Rationalisation and consistency of the regulatory framework and the consistent application of regulatory requirements with respect to health standards and the management and monitoring of the kangaroo population. · More sophisticated population monitoring and quota management systems. · Uniform health standards that meet domestic and export market requirements. · Strategic alliance and relationships between government, pastoralists, shooters, processors and markets.
The impact of adoption of some or all new management practices will be: · Development of a professional industry producing high quality products including food for human consumption, high quality leather and value added co-products for domestic and export markets. · Security for established industry participants who have sustained investment in the industry by achieving resource guarantee for better planning and marketing. · Comprehensive statistics that will accurately reflect the number of kangaroos available for commercial harvest.
RIRDC Project No: MAC-3A
RESEARCHER: Warwick Yates ORGANISATION: Macarthur Consulting GPO Box 2452 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3831 7330 FAX: 07 3832 7298
EMU PROCESSING AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
· To evaluate markets for emu products, particularly meat and leather. · To reduce slaughter costs particularly in the areas of defeathering and skinning.
· To eliminate skin and meat stress damage during transport.
· To determine the cost of supplying emus for different end uses.
Background
Australian commercial scale emu farm commenced in Western Australia in 1987. In the early 1990s a report funded by the Government of Western Australia - 'A development strategy for the emu industry' had recommendations for research on determining the cost of supplying emus for different end uses, reduction of slaughter costs eliminating skin and meat stress damage during transport and product development including identifying and refining meat cuts and the preparation of cooking instruction and recipes.
Research
Research scope included laboratory experiments in meat processing facilities to prepare an emu meat language and specification system, at abattoirs to identify better scalding and plucking procedures, and in pens and yards to elucidate nutrition with liveweight and body composition changes. Laboratory experiments were also carried out to use a prototype stock crate to relate stocking densities and citr height to severity of skin damage
Declawing techniques were investigated in an endeavour to minimise injury between birds, damage to skin and thus leather quality and protection for human handlers.
Outcome and implications
· There was no appreciable improvement in the tenderness of emu meat after ageing for up to 12 weeks.
· A nutritional analysis of emu meat showed that the meat is low in fat and cholesterol and extremely high in iron.
· An emu cut description system was developed and incorporated into an export trade description as required by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service.
· Emus of 60 weeks of age or older, scalding at 60° for 1 or 2 minutes makes plucking easier, without any detrimental effect on the resulting leather. However effective scalding makes the skins harder to remove.
· Declawing emu chicks at hatch by removing the tip of the toe approximately at the last phalangeal joint with a hot blade debeaking machine dramatically reduced damage to the birds and their skin from fighting and transport. There was no evidence of chronic pain in amputated limbs and the quality of skins collected from the declawed birds was dramatically improved.
· There was no benefit in transporting declawed emus in single sex groups and measurement of ultimate pH and glycogen content of the meat from emus that birds transport in single pens travel poorly.
· Emus eat to a consistent demand for energy and diets formulated to contain 10.5 mj of energy for each kilogram do not limit growth. Average weight for age, energy consumed and expected yield of meat and fat were determined.
RIRDC Project No: DAW-34A
RESEARCHERS: Paul Frapple and Peter O'Malley
ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia, 3 Baron-Hay Court, SOUTH PERTH
WA 6151
PHONE: 09 368 3550 FAX: 09 474 2479
Last updated: 22 October1997
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