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Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation |
The New Rural Industries
A handbook for Farmers and Investors
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Durian
Introduction
Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.), hailed as the `king of fruits' is highly esteemed by most Asians for its exquisite aroma and flavour, but rebuffed by most Europeans because of a strong odour viewed as offensive and pungent. It is the most lucrative fruit grown in Southeast Asia. Based on a production of 1.5 million tonnes in the producing countries and a conservative farm gate price of US$1000/t (Table 1 - not available in this html version), the value of the industry world wide is estimated to be US$1.5 billion.The leading producers of durian in the world are, in decreasing order, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Table 2 - not available in this html version). Thailand exports about 5.5% of its total production as fresh and frozen fruit to Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Europe, Brunei, USA (mainly frozen), Canada (mainly frozen), Australia (frozen) and Japan (frozen). In 1994, Thailand's durian exports to Taiwan boosted its export returns from this commodity to over US$20 million, indicating huge market potential in mainland China. Over the past 10 years, the area planted to durian has almost doubled, from 58,000 to 112,000 hectares (Table 3 - not available in this html version).
Since April 1996, 81 consignments totalling over 515 t of frozen durian were imported into Australia from Thailand mainly through Sydney and Melbourne, and to a lesser extent through Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth (Williams, AQIS, 1997, per. comm.).
In Australia, the durian industry is at an embryonic stage. Since the introduction of clonal material in 1975, orchard plantings started only in 1980 in north Queensland, and in the Northern Territory in 1984. In north Queensland, plantings are found along the coastal strip from Tully (18°S) to Cape Tribulation (16°S). There are 27 growers with around 4000 trees, a quarter of which are fruiting. In the Northern Territory, 1000 trees are planted around Darwin (12.5°S), spread among 14 growers. Some 400 of these trees are bearing. The vast majority of growers are Europeans who have developed a penchant for durian.
The industry has a number of strengths. A gene-pool of world renowned cultivars has been introduced. These cultivars are being multiplied. The durian fruit is not a host of the dreaded papaya fruit fly, and there are no durian fruit borers. There are strong market opportunities for this high-priced fruit in both domestic and international markets, particularly in the off-season for other growing regions (Table 4 - not available in this html version). Most orchards are suited to mechanisation, enabling cost-effective farm management. The fruit has a diversity of value-added products. Some constraints to further development of the industry are: (a) there is no recommended variety list; (b) erroneous identification of cultivars; (c) choice planting material is scarce; (d) threat of fruit-spotting bugs and diseases caused by Phytophthora; (e) the long juvenile period before returns can be realised; and (f) the absence of an industry levy to fund research and development.
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Markets and marketing issues
No accurate estimates of the present Australian production or sales are available because of the meagre size of the industry. However, based on prices of $8–12/kg for fresh fruits and $15–20/kg for arils in punnets received by growers in Queensland and the Northern Territory, the potential of the industry is bright. Assuming an orchard with 100 trees/ha having an average yield of 50 fruits/tree at year 10, and a farm price of $10/kg with an average fruit weighing 2 kg, the potential annual return of an industry growing 5000 trees is $5 million. In Thailand and Malaysia average yields reported are around 10–18 t/ha with 50 fruits/tree and each fruit weighing 1.5–4 kg.The main consumer demand comes from the ethnic Asian population, especially from Southeast Asia and Hong Kong. Watson reports that the domestic market (1988) can absorb production from 100 ha. Most consumers prefer fresh fruit, but frozen products are also acceptable. Recently, Japan started importing durian from Malaysia and Thailand in the form of excised arils in sealed polythene punnets. This form of packaging alleviates the strong odour, keeps produce fresh, and poses no problems with airline transportation.
The export potential for durian is good, as production in northern Australia can fill the market window from January to April: late December to early February in the Northern Territory, and February to April in north Queensland (Table 4 - not available in this html version -ed).Thailand’s durian season culminates in April–July, Malaysia’s main season straddles June–August, with a minor crop in November–December, and Indonesia’s crop occurs from October to December.
Most of the major producing countries are situated in Southeast Asia and have their production peaks around the middle of the year (Table 4 - not available in this html version -ed). There may be slight variation of the fruiting period from year to year depending on the weather, giving rise to off-season fruiting. Malaysia and Indonesia have two fruiting seasons because durian is grown in various localities. The main season in Sarawak and Sabah, East Malaysia straddles June through August and both have a small season in November–December. Neither state exports its crop as the fruit are mainly consumed locally. The main harvest in Indonesia is from October to February, but Sumatra produces a crop around June–September.
In Thailand, locality and cultivar also influence the length the fruit
production period. The cultivar ‘Kradumtong’ provide fruit early in the
season. The eastern provinces produce fruit from mid April to June–July,
the southern in July–September and the northern provinces during June–July.
In northern Australia, as represented by north Queensland and the Northern
Territory, durian crops are produced at the end and beginning of the year,
mainly for the domestic market. In the Northern Territory, the fruiting
period usually occurs from November to the end of January (in some years
as early as October and in others as late as early February) and in north
Queensland, ie. from Tully to Cape Tribulation, from late January to the
end of April).
Production requirements
Durian is indigenous to the hot equatorial rainforest of Malaysia and Indonesia. It thrives in a hot (mean minimum 22°C mean maximum 33°C) humid tropical environment with high rainfall of 2000–3000 mm evenly distributed throughout the year, and with good cloud cover. In this respect, the crop performs better in the tropical environment of north Queensland than in the Northern Territory. The paramount environmental constraints are relative humidity and the duration of the absolute minimum temperature. Prolonged low winter temperatures in northern Australia, coupled with the low relative humidity (< 40%), can cause defoliation and abortion of flowers. Trees that lose their leaves may succumb to dieback from sun-scorching of the exposed branches. All the growing areas in northern Australia are at risk of severe cyclonic damage.In its native habitat, durian thrives on well-drained, deep, fertile,
loamy soil, rich in nutrients and organic matter. In north Queensland,
most durian trees are grown on marginal lands previously used for sugarcane
production. These soils have a pH as low as 4, and are depleted of major
and minor nutrients and organic matter. In the Northern Territory, durian
are grown on sandy soils, poor in nutrients and organic matter, and extremely
poor in water-holding capacity. Large quantities of fertilisers are needed
in both cases and irrigation is critical for durian in the Northern Territory.
Varieties
All the clones currently found in Australia have been introduced from Southeast Asia, in the main by growers themselves and to a lesser extent by the Department of Primary Industry in Queensland and Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries in the Northern Territory. Only a dozen or so have been evaluated at bearing age and have planting material available. Most are being evaluated for adaptability and productivity, which is a slow process because of the long gestation period. The following are attributes of a good cultivar: (a) good aril recovery, 30% or more; (b) yellow to deep yellow, firm, creamy aril; (c) small seed; (d) high and consistent yielder, 70–100 fruits/tree; and (e) resistance to major pests and diseases. Thus far, about 40 clones have been introduced into Australia, including eight Durio species, as follows.From Malaysia: Ampung, Capri (MDUR 59), Chin, D 2 TE,
D 2 SJRS, D 7, D10, D 16,
D 24 Ng, D 24 Siah, D 24 CYK, D 96, D 99 TE, D 99 (Gob Siah), D 118
(Tembaga), D 120 (KK5 Manong), D 123 (Chanee), D 140, D 143, D 144, D 145,
D 160, D 163 (Hor Lor), D 164 (Red Flesh), D168, D 175
(Red Prawn), D 178 (P 88), D 179 (P 99), D 186 (Nasi Kunyit),
D 188 (MDUR 78), D 190 (MDUR 88), Eden 5, Hew 1, Hew 2, Hew 3, Hew
4, Hew 5, Hew 6, Hew 7, Hew 9, KK 11, P 21, P 601, P 604, Permasuri,
Sahom, TLK/YEAO, Taiping 1, XA
From Indonesia: Hepe, Petruk, Sitokong, Sukun, Sunan
From Thailand: Chanee, Chompoosri, GaanYaow, Gob, Gob Yaow, Kradumtong, Gumpun, Kampun-Luang Monthong DPI, Monthong TE, Luang
From Thailand via Hawaii: Pomoho Monthong
Local Australian selections:- Johnson, Limberlost, Z 1, Diedre 1, Diedre
2
Durio species besides Durio zibethinus: Durio dulcis (Lahong) Durio
graveolens (Durian merah), Durio kutejensis (Lai), Durio oblongus, Durio
oxleyanus (Isu), Durio micrantha, Durio testudinarum (Durian kura)
Agronomy
Some clonal self-incompatibility has been reported in durian. Our studies showed that selfing can result in more premature fruit abortion and the production of deformed fruit, thus outcrossing is recommended for durian. It would be advisable to have a mixed clonal stand with different clones in separate rows rather than a pure stand. A mixed planting of early, late and medium flowering clones will also extend and enhance productivity.The planting distance commonly employed in northern Australia is 10–12 ¥ 10–12 m square or triangular planting system, although a distance of 10 ¥ 8 m is also practised in the Northern Territory. A permanent natural windbreak needs to be in place before crop establishment because of the strong winds experienced in the growing areas. Durian requires some light shading (dried palm fronds or synthetic fabric) during the first two years after field establishment, especially around Darwin. Owing to the threat of Phytophthora diseases, trees should be planted on raised mounds especially in low-lying areas.
Young trees 2–4 years old should be pruned of orthotropic and criss-cross
plagiotropic branches to open up the canopy. On mature bearing trees no
pruning is carried out. Under Darwin conditions it takes around
110–130 days from anthesis to harvest maturity.
Water shortage poses no constraint to the cultivation of durian in north Queensland which has a wet tropical climate similar to the crop’s native habitat. However, in the monsoonal/tropical environment of the Top End of the N.T., water shortage can play a critical role. Durian is extremely sensitive to drought stress, at all stages of growth, from the seedling to the mature, bearing stage, and there is variation among varieties to drought susceptibility. Durian is a shallow-rooted crop with 60% of the total root length confined within 60 cm from the crown and 0–30 cm from the soil surface. In the Northern Territory, the tentative recommendation is to apply water at rates of up to 2000 L/tree/week for trees with 4 m canopy spread during September to November and lower rates during other months. Mulching trees can also help to conserve soil moisture.
Fertiliser application should be scheduled in accordance with the crop
phenology and fluctuations in crop nutrient requirements. Diagnosis of
crop nutrient demand should be assessed from leaf and soil sampling done
in November in Darwin, and using the tentative standards drawn up for northern
Australia. For instance, studies showed most NPK fertilisers should be
applied immediately after crop harvest just at the incipient stages of
major vegetative flushing, another smaller application a month or two before
flowering and around early stages of fruit development. The quantity of
fertilisers used should be adjusted yearly according to the results of
leaf sampling as and the crop load (yield) removed. Application of micronutrients
as foliar spray should be done during early vegetative flushing.
Pests and diseases
The most serious pest of durian in Queensland and the NT is the fruit-spotting bug, Amblypelta lutescens, which damages flowers and developing fruits at all stages. In the Northern Territory, green ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) and mealy bugs deform and dry up flower buds and deform developing fruits, while meat ants, Iridomyrmex sp., devour flowers and a longicorn borer attacks the bark. Minor insect pests include Rhyparida beetles damaging young foliage, thrips, and mites on developing fruits.Disease caused by Phytophthora palmivora have been encountered in north
Queensland and the NT. This is by far the most serious disease attacking
durian at all stages of the crop growth. It causes seedling dieback, root
rot, patch canker on the trunk, leaf rots and pre and post-harvest fruit
rots. Also, dieback caused by a suspected basidiomycetous fungus was encountered
in the NT, resulting in dieback of tree with different symptoms to that
caused by the ubiquitous P. palmivora. Another tree decline of unknown
aetiology was also observed in north Queensland. In the Northern Territory,
stem lesions around wounds have been associated with a Phomopsis and Lasiodiplodia
theobromae (G. Johnson, CSIRO, Brisbane, pers. comm.). A minor disease
observed is leaf spot caused by the alga, Cephaleuros virescens.
Harvesting and postharvest handling
Most growers picked ripe fruits when they dropped from the tree. Such fruits have a very short shelf live of 2–3 days. To reduce fruit damage caused by the fall, tarpaulins or nets can be erected below the tree during the ripening months. The shelf life of intact fallen ripe fruits can be extended by 1–2 or more days if they are stored at 5–10°C.Selective harvest before the fruit is ripe, as is practised in Thailand, will extend the shelf life, but this needs a great deal of skill and experience. Thai growers use a combination of harvesting indices in selective harvesting. These include: the number of days from full bloom; colour, elasticity and disposition of the spines; intensity of the odour emitted; the sound heard when the fingertips are run through the furrows between the spines; changes in fruit stalks and water flotation tests (Subhadrabandhu et al., 1991). Selectively harvested fruit should be stored at 15°C which will extend their shelf life to 3 weeks, and quick-frozen arils retain their flavour for more than 3 months.
References
Alim, J., Ahmad, J., Geronimo, S.D.B., Huat, K.S., Nanthachai, S. and Tjiptono, P. 1994. Status of the durian industry in ASEAN. In: S. Nanthachai, ed.., Durian—fruit development, postharvest physiology, handling, marketing in ASEAN.ASEAN Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 27–43.
Lim, T. K. 1990. Durian diseases and disorders. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur. 95 pp.
Lim, T. K. 1995. Durian. In: Coombs, B. (ed.), Horticulture Australia—the complete reference of the Australian horticultural industry. Morescope Publishing, Victoria, Australia.
Lim, T. K. 1996. Boosting durian productivity. RIRDC project DNT- 13A.
Nanthachai, S., ed. 1994. Durian –fruit development, postharvest physiology, handling, marketing in ASEAN. ASEAN Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Siriphanich, J. 1996. Storage and transportation of tropical fruits: a case study on durian. In: Vijaysegaran, S., Pauziah, M., Mohamad, M.S. and A. Ahmad Tarmizi, A., eds., Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical fruits, 23–26 July 1996, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Vol. 1, pp. 439–451. Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Insitute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Subhadrabandhu, S., Verheij, J. M. P. and Verheij, E.W.M. 1991. Durio zibethinus Murray. In: Verheij, E.W.M. and R. E. Coronel, R.E., eds, Plant Resources of South-east Asia. No. 2 Edible fruits and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen.
Watson, B. 1988. A durian industry for Australia? Proceedings of Fourth
Australasian Conference on Tree and Nut
Crops, Lismore, NSW, 15–19 August 1988.
Key contacts
Dr T.K. LimDepartment of Primary Industries and Fisheries
GPO Box 990
Darwin, NT 0801
Phone: (08) 8999 2222
Fax: (08) 8999 2049
Email: tk.lim@dpif.nt.gov.au
Bert Jaminon
P.O. Box
Howard Springs, NT 0835
Phone/fax: (08) 8983 1007
Joe and Alan Zappala
Zappala Tropicals
CMB2
Belleden Ker
Cairns, Qld 4871
Phone: (07) 4067 5366
Fax: (07) 4067 5315
About the author
T. K. Lim is Principal Horticulturist with the Northern Territory’s Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries (see Key contacts for address). He has degrees in agricultural science from the University of Malaya and holds a PhD from the University of Hawaii. His current area of interest is focused on tropical fruits and Asian vegetables.
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