Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation

The New Rural Industries
A handbook for Farmers and Investors

Cool season pulses

Introduction

Pulses are members of the pea and clover family (Leguminoseae), a very large group of plants, many of which are useful as food (broad beans, peas, lentils, chickpeas, navy beans, grams etc.), fodder (clovers, medics, lucerne etc), building material (wattles and many tropical and sub-tropical species), industrial products (peanuts and soya beans) and many other uses. They have high levels of protein in their seeds and are an important component of diets, both human and animal, which include little meat. They also have the ability, when inoculated with the right strain of rhizobium bacteria, to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. This makes them less dependent than other species on soil nitrogen, and they can even supply some of the nitrogen needs of crops that follow them.

This chapter deals with those pulses that grow in the winter in southern Australia, are harvested for their dry seeds and are eaten as a pulse or used as animal feed. Some legumes can be both a pulse and a vegetable, depending on the method of growth, the variety and the time of harvest. Peas, for example, when dried are used in soups and stews, and green peas or snow peas can be eaten as vegetables. Many pulses are a valuable addition to our diet, providing protein, fibre, minerals and vitamins. There is evidence that they reduce the risk of heart and other diseases.

The pulses produced in Australia include various lupin species. The main lupin species is Lupinus angustifolius, or narrow-leafed lupin, but L. albus (white lupin) and L. luteus (yellow lupin) are also grown. The first commercial variety of yellow lupins was released in 1997, so production is currently both very local and small. The other pulses are: dry peas (Pisum sativum), including duns, blues, marrowfat and others; faba (horse, or tic) beans (Vicia faba); chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), both desi and kabuli types; and lentils (Lens culinaris), both red and green.

Some of these species are used both as food for both animals and humans. For example, both horse beans and broad beans are types of faba beans, and lupins, though mainly animal feed, are eaten in small quantities by people in many parts of the world, including Australia.

Markets and marketing issues

Over the last 30 years there has been a revolution in Australia in the production of cool season pulses. In 1967 we produced some 30,000 t of pulses, mainly dry peas, whereas in 1996 production had climbed to some 2.3 million tonnes, of which about 600,000 t were used in Australia. Table 1(not available in this html version)gives 1995 production of pulses by species and State, and projected total production by species for the year 2005.

Despite a large immigrant population from southern Europe, the Middle East and Asia, all areas where pulses are an important part of the diet, Australia has one of the lowest levels of pulse consumption in the world. We consume, on average, 6 g/person/day. This is half the British average and only a fifth that consumed daily in India. Australians consume only about 40,000 t of pulses per year. One of the crucial changes needed to increase pulse consumption in Australia is to turn them into a convenience food (see later information on processing). Most of the Australian production retained here is used to feed farm animals in periods of shortage, is sold and turned into compound feeds for intensive animal industries or is used as seed in the following year. These uses accounted for the vast bulk (560,000 t) of 1995 production.

For the human market the key quality criteria are size, shape, colour, taste and cooking time.

The requirements vary between countries for the different pulses and thus there is a wide range of types of all pulses that are supplied into the marketplace. A good place to get some idea of the range is in a large health food shop.

Most of the lupins and some of the faba beans and dry peas produced in Australia are used as animal feed. Here the key factors are protein and energy levels, and price, related to animal nutritional requirements and least cost in rations. Australian lupins have a good reputation as a high quality product for animal feeds. They compete mainly against soya bean meal.

Production requirements

The key production factor in determining whether a pulse will grow in a region is adaptation to soil pH. The scale runs from yellow lupins, the most acid tolerant (liking a low pH or acid soil), through narrow-leafed lupins to white lupins, peas, faba beans, chickpeas and lentils being the most acid sensitive (liking a high pH or alkaline soil).

No pulse is very tolerant of waterlogging. Faba beans and yellow lupins are the most tolerant and lentils the least. But all prefer free-draining soils, and yellow and narrow-leafed lupins are particularly well adapted to deep sands, whereas lentils, faba beans, chickpeas and peas are adapted to heavier soils.

Faba beans tend to need longer growing seasons, chickpea are intermediate, and peas and lentils do well in dry areas.

However, if waterlogging is not a problem, then provided the maturity of the chosen variety is suitable, all species will yield better in more favourable climates. On free-draining acid sands, yellow and narrow-leafed lupins will cope with a wide range of growing seasons, but high yields will be obtained only in favourable years.

Varieties

There are active breeding programs in Australia producing a series of new varieties for all seven species considered here and all the species are grown or are capable of being grown in the four southern mainland States. For this reason it is not sensible to make recommendations on specific varieties for different parts of this vast area. The best information for any particular area will be available from the nearest department of agriculture office, or a farm consultant or company agronomist. They have the local knowledge that is needed when making varietal decisions at a particular place.

However a few general principles to consider when choosing a variety are:

• does the species suit your soils,

• once you have decided on species look for varieties with a maturity that suits your local climate,

• then consider the market requirements

• find out what pests and diseases are likely to be locally important.

Chose your variety to meet your market specifications and for resistance or tolerance to likely local pests and diseases. Ask neighbours who have grown the species of interest, what problems they encountered, then choose a variety that minimises the risk of those problems.

Agronomy

Again it is not possible in the space available to consider in any detail the agronomy of seven species that are adapted to many States in Australia. This is because agronomy is location specific; weed species, for example, vary with soil type, climate and paddock history. The main factors that need to be considered and the information that must be obtained before growing a new crop include:

1) Seed source

a) likelihood of introducing weeds or seed-borne diseases

b) germination percentage— only use seed with a good germination percentage

c) does the seed need inoculating with rhizobium and lime pelleting to ensure good nitrogen fixation?

d) does the seed need any other form of seed dressing to control pests and/ or diseases?

2) Paddock history:

a) what is the likely weed spectrum and density?

b) is there a risk of disease carry over because of similar species being grown in the preceding year?

c) is a pre-planting herbicide needed, either a knock down or a residual?

d) what cultivation, if any, is needed before planting?

3) Planting

a) what seeding rate to use

b) what depth to plant

c) when to plant in relation to the break of the season and soil moisture and in relation to other crops in the planting program

d) what fertilisers to use and at what rate; should the fertiliser be placed with the seed or broadcast

e) should herbicides be applied at planting?

4) Growing season

a) what pests diseases and weeds are likely to occur, how do you control them and when is control economic?

b) try to determine why a crop grows well or poorly and use this information to improve performance in the future

5) Harvest

a) many legumes are difficult to harvest—make sure that you have the equipment that you need to ensure effective harvesting. There is no point in growing a magnificent crop if you leave most of it on the ground. Things to consider include extra fingers to reduce shake, modifications to the cutter bars, crop lifters and air blowers. You may consider windrowing

b) appropriate harvesting is vital for seed quality both for the market and for the next crop. Legume seed is very easily damaged at harvest because of the seed size and the way the growing points are joined to the cotyledons which are the seeds food reserves. Harvest with the concave as wide open as possible and the drum speed as slow as possible. For seed, harvest when there is a little moisture around (e.g. at night) as the seeds are less brittle and harvesting damage is reduced.

c) make sure the seed you keep for planting the next year is of the highest quality. Good quality seed sets up good crops.

6) After harvest

a) move seed as littleas possible, augering damages seed

b) when augering make sure the auger runs full

c) do not store the seed if there is weed contamination, this is particularly important if the weeds are brassicas (radish, turnip etc) as they emit volatiles which can kill seed.

7) Rotations

a) as legumes can fix nitrogen they can improve the nutrition of following crops

b) legumes can be used to provide a weed and disease break for other crops, partic-ularly cereals and oilseeds.

Pest and disease control

Legumes are particularly susceptible to pests and diseases because of the high protein levels in both the plant and the seeds, providing excellent nutrition for pests and diseases. Many of the pests and diseases of legumes have a double effect on the value of the crop: first, they reduce the yield potential and second, they often damage and blemish the seeds, so that the quality and value of the product is reduced.

The most likely pests and diseases of cool season pulses are listed by species in Table 2 (not available in this html version) (they are illustrated in PulsePak—see Key references). For many diseases and some pests, crop hygiene is the best way of minimising risk. This includes clean seed, an appropriate rotational break to reduce the carry over of soil-borne diseases, the use of seed dressings, appropriate agronomy (e.g. stubble retention to reduce rain splash for diseases that are splash dispersed), good plant nutrition so that plants are better able to resist disease, and regular monitoring to observe if and when problems arise. At this point remedial treatments may be possible, particularly the use of insecticides against common pests such as redlegged earth mite and Heliothis (now called Helicoverpa). The latter pest not only reduces yield by eating developing seeds, but also lowers quality by damaging more mature seeds.

There is considerable research interest in developing integrated pest management systems for pulses, and some are now available. Their components include, for example, the use of rotation, stubble retention, planting depth, seed dressing and improved varietal resistance to control brown leaf spot and Plietocheata root rot in narrow-leafed lupins. These integrated management systems, as they become more widespread, will have many benefits. The use of rotational and agronomic methods to minimise the level of attack by pests and diseases will reduce our reliance on chemical controls, increasing the useful life of pesticides and resistance genes, and enhancing our `clean green' image.

It is likely that in the next 5-10 years genetic engineering will provide resistance to increasing numbers of pests and diseases. Already an alpha amylose gene from French beans has been inserted in peas to control pea weevils and virus resistance genes have been transferred to narrow-leafed and yellow lupins.

Harvest and processing

Many pulses provide particular problems at harvest and special techniques have been developed to minimise harvest losses. They include air blowers to reduce the risk of pod shattering in lupins and crop lifters to help pick up peas that have lodged. Often considerable care is needed as many pulses have some (or many) pods close to the ground (lentils, chickpeas, faba beans) and the header speed needs to be slow to ensure it picks up the maximum number of pods without getting stones or stumps into the concave.

Pulse seeds are very sensitive to mishandling in harvesting, handling and storage. This is because the cotyledons, which are the major part of the seed and provide the reserves needed for the seed to germinate vigorously and grow well (and also are the main part that we eat) are attached to the root and shoot axis by very small and delicate attachments. If the harvesting, handling or storage is rough, or if the seed is too dry and brittle, then the attachments break and the growing points are separated from their food reserves. They are not able to grow. Ways of minimising damage include harvesting with the concave drum open as far as possible and the drum speed as low as possible. Also, harvesting at night, when there is some moisture in the atmosphere, makes the seed less brittle. When seed is being moved in augers, the augers should always be full. The seed should be moved as few times as possible to reduce the risk of damage.

The major form of processing of pulses is to split the seed and remove the seed coat (e.g. split peas and lentils). Also, the seeds may be ground to provide a flour for dhal and other dishes. If their use in Australia is to increase there is a need for the public to be aware of pulses, understand their value in the diet and know quick and tasty ways of preparing them. A limitation to their use is the need to pre-soak the seeds, often overnight, so there has to be forward planning in their use. A recent arrival on the market is a product called `QuickPulse', which has been pre-soaked and partially cooked. It will be interesting to see if this approach makes pulses a more acceptable part of the everyday diet. Various tinned pulse products are also available.

In animal feeds, or if the pulse is used as a source of fibre or protein in the food industry, various separation techniques may be used, but these are not of great importance to the producer, except that his choice of variety and agronomic practice should maximise the industrial component if he is paid a premium for it (a rare event).

Economics of production

Like the agronomy, the economics of growing pulses are highly dependent on local factors. Thus, any comments must be very general. The first is start in a small way and learn about which species and varieties are best suited to your local soils and climate; make sure that market opportunities are there, and be well informed about the best production system for your area. It is only by maximising the yield of good quality product while controlling input costs that pulses can be grown profitably.

The rewards can be substantial, particularly when you remember that the benefits of growing a legume spillover into the crop that follows. Good weed control in the pulse crop reduces the carry over of root diseases and allows more timely planting of the following crop. This can lead to dramatic yield improvements in the following crop. The effect of lupins on the yield of following cereals in Western Australia is often an increase of 50% over the yield of cereals grown continuously. These effects can dramatically improve whole-farm income, even when the direct profit from the pulse is relatively small.

Key contacts

Key References

The best, most comprehensive and easily accessible source of information in Australia that distils the knowledge of many people on pulse production is a computer-based information package called `PulsePak', developed initially by Agriculture WA and CLIMA.

With a grant from the Grains Research and Development Corporation, and input from all State departments of agriculture it has been improved to provide national coverage and will be released across the country in September 1997. It includes further information on all the topics in this paper. PulsePak is available for $50 from CLIMA, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia 6907

The other key source of information are the farm notes, fact sheets etc. that many organisations, but particularly State departments of agriculture, produce on pulse crops with their jurisdiction.

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