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Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation |
The New Rural Industries
A handbook for Farmers and Investors
Welcome to the RAMBUTAN chapter of RIRDC's major new publication (contents page here) on nearly 100 new rural industries.
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Rambutan
Introduction
Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) is a very attractive, nutritious and delectable bright red or yellow fruit, popular among the Asian and European ethnic groups. It was introduced into Australia from its native Malaysia/Indonesia as seeds in around the 1890s, but clonal materials were introduced and developed after the 1960s. Although more than 50 clones were introduced, only 12-15 are commercially cultivated. The crop was introduced into the Northern Territory as recently as the 1980s.The Australian rambutan industry remains at a fledgling stage, having
developed over the past 15 years. The crop thrives well in coastal areas
in north Queensland, north of Ingham (18° 50'S.) and around Darwin
(12° 2'S.) to Adelaide River
(12° 7'S). In Kununurra, Western Australia, rambutan
does not thrive well and fruit setting is problematic because of meteorological
constraints.
Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers. Rambutan is grown also in the Philippines, Brunei, Vietnam, Singapore, Kampuchea, Burma, Sri Lanka, Central America, northern Australia, Hawaii, Mauritius and Madagascar. The 1990 statistics of rambutan in Indonesia list 4,593,574 trees planted in an area of 66,574 ha with a production of 270,686 t. In 1991, exports totalling 108.644 t worth US$ 201,417 were exported from Indonesia to: Singapore, 18.7 t; the United Arab Emirates, 41.653 t; Ghana, 8.06 t; Holland 3.896 t; and Luxembourg 4.146 t. Statistics for 1996 report a production of 340,000 t. Thailand produced 430 000 t from 60,000 ha in 1983-84 and exported 273 t fresh fruit worth US$179,000 to Hong Kong, France, Holland, Switzerland and other countries, and US$2,430,000 of canned rambutan with and without pineapple stuffing. Malaysia in 1994 had 17,610 ha planted with rambutan. Production periods for the various growing countries are shown in Table 1 (not available in this html version).
Key messages
|
Key statistics |
| Queensland | 200t/year
estimated value $2m |
| Northern Territory | 60-75 t/year,
estimated value $0.6-1.0m |
| Total exports | 472.4 t |
Marketing issues
Rambutan ranked high in an ASEAN fruit taste test in Hong Kong in 1986 showing that the Chinese like the fruit and suggesting that it has a high unexploited market potential in China and Taiwan (Fig. 1 - not available in this html version).In north Queensland, the industry is currently worth $2m from a production
of 200 t by about 60 growers. There are about 14 major growers each with
about 1000 trees, but most growers have around
200-500 trees. The trees in Queensland are 10-12 years old, and yield,
on average, around 100 kg/tree. In the Northern Territory, production from
about 40 growers is 60-75 t and the industry is valued at $0.6-1.0m. Most
growers have fewer than 500 trees. Many growers have reduced their planting
size, and some have abandoned rambutan cultivation because of the catastrophic
fruit losses from depredation by rainbow lorikeets. Trees are much younger
in the NT and yields are lower at 45-55 kg/tree. In both areas, growers
are becoming more informed and more organised with the development of the
Rambutan Growers Association in north Queensland and a rambutan growers
group in the Northern Territory.
The major domestic markets are in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and, to a smaller extent, Adelaide and Darwin. Rambutan is sold as single layer trays (2.5-3 kg), bulked packs (5 kg) bunched panicles or in punnets (250-850 g). Bunched panicles are in demand only around Chinese New Year, which falls in either January or February. Punnet packaging is slowly gaining acceptance in domestic markets. In general, prices received by growers in the Northern Territory are higher, averaging more than $20/2.5 kg tray because of the early market window and absence of competition from Queensland, where average prices obtained are much lower. From June to October, production levels are minimal but prices would be higher because of less competition from deciduous fruits. Currently, domestic prices are higher than export prices.
Rambutan presently commands a small market size in Europe but expectations for future growth are high. Major markets are France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Germany. Small quantities of rambutan have been exported from Australia since 1987. In 1992-93 a total of almost 10 t was exported to Bahrain, Brunei, France, Hong Kong, Kuwait, Lebanon, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, United Arab Emirates and United Kingdom.
Industry's strength and weaknesses
Some of the industry's strengths are:- • almost year-round Australian production (except September and early
October)
• diversity of high yielding commercial cultivars
• good preharvest management technology and postharvest handling system
• red cultivars not a preferred host for papaya fruit fly
• good domestic demand for fresh fruit
• good opportunities and market exist for canned rambutan products
• attractive packaging and quality assurance standards exist
• clean green image.
- • short shelf life of fruit
• fruit susceptibility to injury and desiccation
• the crop must be protected from winged vertebrate pests by netting, increasing production cost
• poor handling of produce in retail market outlets
• lack of cohesion and coordination in group marketing, especially fragmented marketing among NT growers.
Production requirements
The native environment of the rambutan is characterised by high, evenly-distributed rainfall (around 2000 mm or more), high humidity, low evaporation rates and average minimum temperatures above 20°C. Lower temperatures will constrain growth at altitudes above 300 m. In northern Australia, the low night temperatures (< 15°C) and the low prevailing diurnal humidity during May to August can inhibit shoot development and cause young leaf, flower and fruit abortion. Controlled environment studies showed that vegetative growth ceases under cool day/night temperatures (22°C/14°C) and is only marginally better at 32°C/14°C. Maximum growth occurs at 32°C/28°C. Windbreaks are necessary because of the strong and dry winds particularly in drier growing areas.The crop grows best in a well-drained, deep loamy soil with a pH in the range 5.5-6.5 and does not do well on alkaline soils with high bicarbonate or calcium levels. In northern Queensland, rambutan thrives best on the red basaltic soils to the west of Innisfail. Other suitable soils include the metamorphic and alluvial soils in the valleys and foothills. In the Northern Territory rambutan is grown mainly on the sandy loamy yellow-brown earths. These soils require regular fertilisation and irrigation for good plant growth.
Varieties
More than 50 cultivars have been introduced from South East Asia, several of them erroneously labelled or misidentified. About 15 are popularly cultivated in commercial orchards in the Northern Territory and Queensland (Table 2 - not available in this html version). Most of these varieties have been vegetatively propagated by inarching, marcotting or bud grafting.Some attributes of a good variety are: a) fruit weight
> 40 g with flesh recovery ratio
> 45%; b) red/orange pericarp resistant to insect attacks (yellow pericarp
more susceptible); c) fruit with
< 5.5 spintern/cm2 fruit surface and spintern length
< 12 mm long to reduce moisture loss; d) fruit with free-stone and testa-free
flesh which is firm and crisp; e) yields of 12-15 t/ha based on 8-year-old
trees at a spacing of 100 tree/ha; and f) tolerant of temperatures below
15°C.
Cultural practices
The most common planting distance for rambutan is 8-10 m within rows and 10 m between rows in a square or triangular planting system giving densities of 100-150 trees/ha. A few orchards have wider tree spacing of 12 m ¥ 10 m giving a density of 80 trees/ha. In the Northern Territory, to avoid attack by rainbow lorikeets, it is recommended that rambutan be established under some form of permanent overhead netting, in which case densities of 200-300 trees/ha, i.e. planting distances of 4-6 m by 8 m are desirable. Under such a regime, annual topping and hedging of trees is necessary, in addition to the usual pruning inside the canopy and skirting.A windbreak established 8-10 m from the crop row along the windward side is a necessity for most areas in Queensland and all areas in the Northern Territory because of the strong, dry and cold south-easterly winds from May to August and the threat of strong cyclonic wind during November-March. Windbreaks should be established before the rambutan crop.
Fruiting terminals and other strong leaders are usually pruned back 0.3-0.5 m after harvesting. Weak growths and shoots inside the canopy are also cut away and branches drooping to the ground are skirted. In the Northern Territory, where it has become necessary to establish rambutan overhead netting, topping and side hedging has to be done annually or biennially.
Mulching is good for young trees. Sugar mill waste such as bagasse or molasses, paper waste, hay, polythene, well-decomposed poultry and animal manure are often used. Mulching increases soil moisture and organic matter, raises humidity and carbon dioxide in the tree micro-environment, reduces weed growth and soil erosion, alters soil pH and insulates tree surface roots.
Root distribution investigations on mature trees showed that 80% of the root system is in the top 15 cm of the soil and within the canopy line, indicating that rambutan is shallow-rooted. Anecdotal evidence indicates that severe leaf drop occurs following 10 days without irrigation. Experiments using potted, mature, field-grown trees showed a rapid decline in leaf water potential and CO2 assimilation 3 days after cessation of irrigation. These data suggest that irrigation should be frequent (daily) after the wet season, and that during periods of high water requirements (fruit filling) twice-daily irrigation may be appropriate, particularly on sandy soils.
Crop factors have been developed from crop monitoring in the Northern Territory (Table 3 - not available in this html version). They can be used to calculate approximate water requirements for trees. Growers should note that the evaporation-based system of water requirement estimation is a valid means of assessing water use for the design of irrigation systems for new orchards and for a starting irrigation level in existing orchards. Day-to-day irrigation management should be carried out using one of the many soil moisture monitoring instruments available, such as tensiometers, neutron moisture probes or capacitance probes.
Studies in the Northern Territory have revealed that rambutan requires more nitrogen and potassium than phosphorus, especially during fruit set and development. It also requires the following macro-elements in decreasing amounts: N > K > Ca > Mg > P. For the first two non-bearing years, a N:P:K (10:4.5:8) fertiliser applied 6 times/year is recommended at a rate of 1 kg [per tree?] in the first year and 1.5 kg in the second. For fruiting trees, 4-6 split applications of a chloride-free N:P:K fertiliser 10:5:9 applied at a rate of 2 kg/tree for a three-year-old tree are recommended, increasing 0.5 kg for each year of age. Critical times for application are: at the tail end of harvest; during March; a month before flowering; and during fruit set and development.
Rambutan commonly suffer from deficiencies of zinc, iron, boron and sometimes manganese. Deficiencies can be corrected by foliar sprays or soil applications via soil drenching or fertigation. Foliar applications are timed to coincide with the appearance of new vegetative flushes. Rambutan leaves are sensitive to chlorine levels above 0.018%.
Calcium and magnesium fertilisers should be applied in adequate amounts during January in alternate years (e.g. dolomite 250-500 g/tree). Gypsum can also be used to increase soil levels of calcium and sulfur, especially on alkaline soils.
The levels of macro-elements in soil do not fluctuate as widely as in the rambutan leaves because of the good buffering capacity of the soil. Soil pH and electrical conductivity are also fairly uniform, pH varies slightly from 6.1-6.35 and electrical conductivity hovers around 0.05 mS/cm.
Pest and diseases
Winged vertebrate pests pose a severe biotic constraint to the cultivation of rambutan in northern Australia. Rainbow lorikeets, Trichoglossus haematodus, can cause catastrophic losses in yield in the Northern Territory, ravaging young, maturing and ripe fruits; while flying foxes, Pteropus alecto (black flying fox) and P. scapulatus (brown flying fox) damage ripe fruits (Lim et al., 1993). In Queensland, the flying foxes are more damaging as the harvest season is longer.Numerous caterpillars, especially loopers such as the castor oil looper, Achaea janata; and the conspicuous looper, Oxyodes tricolor, and other flower grubs damage young foliage and inflorescences. Beetles such as swarming leaf beetles, Rhyparida spp.; red shouldered leaf beetles, Monolepta spp.; leaf eating weevil, Myocerus sp.; and plant hoppers (Flatidae: Colgaroides sp., Syrhanta sp.) feed on the foliage and the latter on inflorescences. Red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrucinctocs, can be problematic on young foliage and fruits, causing the latter to be russeted. Fruit spotting bugs, Amblypelta spp., cause dark blemishes on fruit. Flatids, mealy bugs and scales also infest inflorescences and fruits. They disfigure and enhance deterioration of fruits. They are cultured and spread by ants which feed on the honeydew they secreted. Also, the honeydew secreted promotes the proliferation of sooty mould fungi on the foliage and fruits. One way to control the mealy bugs and scales is by controlling ants and keeping the trees well
skirted so that the branches do not touch the ground. In certain seasons, red spotted mites also attack the fruits.
Diseases are less problematic than winged vertebrate or insect pests. Stem canker (Dolabra nepheliae) is common on the trunk, branches and twigs, especially when the canopy is thick and full. Pruning to facilitate more light penetration can reduce the incidence as will spraying with a copper fungicide containing no chlorine. Lasiodiplodia theobromae has been reported as causing dieback of branches and trunk lesions, while another fungus Thyronectria psuedotrichia has also been implicated in dieback. Algal leaf spots characterised by felty, orange-brown spots are caused by Cephaleuros virescens and can be controlled by copper sprays. Fruit rots of rambutan are caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Phomopsis sp. Stem end rots of fruits are caused by Phomopsis sp. and Dothiorella spp.
Harvesting and postharvest handling
Rambutan is non-climacteric and must be harvested when ripe. The fruit is usually harvested2-3 weeks after colour change or when the total soluble solids (brix) level of 18-20° is reached. Harvest should be done early morning. Depending on market or labour requirements, whole panicles or individual fruits are selectively picked and placed into crates in the shade. Rambutan loses its attractive appearance after a few days under ambient conditions due to superficial browning of the fruit skin. It turns brown and eventually black because of water loss from its spinterns and skin, and from mechanical damage to the fruit. Immediately after harvesting, fruits should be rapidly transported to the packing shed. The fruits are hydro-cooled by spraying with cool water to dissipate field heat, or water-sprayed and place in a high humidity room held at 8-10°C. Many orchards in Queensland have developed a postharvest handling system which includes destalkers, dip tanks, sorting tables, a size grader and an area for assembling cartons and packing. There are no major quarantine restrictions on interstate marketing of rambutans, except to Western Australia which requires fruits to be treated with dimethoate.
Depending on the market requirement, fruits are packed in single, double or multi-layers in cartons with various polythene liner wraps e.g. peak-fresh bags, LD polybag, PY 7 bag, PVC film, or in plastic punnets and kept refrigerated at 8-10°C. Wraps are essential to decrease desiccation of fruits and to increase the shelf life to several weeks by atmosphere modification. The minimum size of carton is 2.5 kg. The fruits are transported to interstate markets by refrigerated trucks or by air.
Economics of production
The most recent economic analysis shows that profitability of rambutan is high with a yield of about 10 t/ha and if a southern wholesale market price of $5/kg can be maintained in the long term. Any improvement in yields or prices, or reduction in production cost, will increase profitability levels. The financial analysis shows that, at a long-term average price of $10-5/kg. the internal rate of return (IRR) ranges from 9.59% (low yield, 60 kg/tree) to 13.9% (high yield, 70 kg/tree) for the fixed netting system. Returns from row netting are higher, from 10.3% (low yield) to 14.37% (high yield). These rates are equivalent to 13.09-17.4% (for the fixed net planting) and 16.8-17.87% (for the row net planting) in nominal terms, assuming a long term inflation rate of 3.5% per year. In the Northern Territory, depending on the yield and netting system, the break-even price is found to be $4.50-5/kg and the payback period at this price ranges from 7-9 years. In north Queensland, where the yields are higher and the need to net trees is not so great, the break-even price and payback period are lower. Also the IRR is higher, despite slightly lower average prices.Key contacts
| Dr T.K. Lim
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries GPO Box 990 Darwin, NT 0801 Phone: (08) 8999 2222 Fax: (08) 8999 2049 Email: tk.lim@dpif.nt.gov.au Mr Yan Diczbalis
Rambutan Growers Group
Rambutan and Tropical Exotic Local Producers Association
|
Key References
Chilvers, L. N. (1986). Markets for exotic fruits in the EEC. Far Eastern Agric. Sept./Oct. 1986: 35-36.Diczbalis, Y (1997). Environmental factors influencing the growth and yield of rambutan and cupuacu. RIRDC Final Report, DNT-10A.
Diczbalis, Y, Eamus, D. and C. M. Menzel. (1996). Environmental factors influencing the growth and yield of rambutan grown in the wet/dry tropics of northern Australia.
In: S. Vijayasegaran, M. Pauziah, M.S. Mohamad and A. Tarmizi (eds), International Conference on Tropical Fruits, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Johnson, G. I. (1993). Rambutan In D. Persley (ed.) Diseases of Fruit Crops. Queensland Dept. Pri. Ind.
Joy, C. (1987). Selected European markets for specialty and tropical fruit and vegetables. Trop. Dev. Res. Inst.
Laksmi, L.D.S., Lam, P.F., Mendoza, D.B. Jr, Kosiyachinda, S. and Leong, P.C. (1987). Status of the rambutan industryin ASEAN. pp. 1-8, In: P.F. Lam and S. Kosiyachinda (eds.). Rambutan Fruit Development, Post-harvest Physiology and Marketing in ASEAN.
Lim, T. K. (1991). Rambutan industry in the Northern Territory—current status, research and development emphasis. Acta Horticulturae 321: 62-70.
Lim, T.K. and Diczbalis, Y. (1995). Rambutans, pp. 453-458, In: B. Coombs (ed.) Horticulture Australia—the Complete Reference on the Horticulture industry. Morescope Publishing, Victoria, Australia.
Lim, T.K. and Landrigan, M. (1992). Selected Rambutan clones in the Northern Territory Unpublished mimeograph, Hort. Branch, Dept. Pri. Ind. & Fish. Northern Territory.
Ngo, H. (1996). Economic assessment of rambutan production in the Northern Territory. N.T. Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries Technical Bulletin No. 251.
*About the author
| Dr T.K. Lim (BAgrSc, MAgrSci, PhD) is Principal Horticulturist in the Horticulture Division, Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory (see Key contacts for address). His current areas of interest are tropical fruits and Asian vegetables. | Mr Y. Diczbalis (BAgrSc, MAgrSc) is Senior Horticulturist in the Horticulture Division, Departrnent of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory. His current areas of interest are tropical tree water requirements and irrigation management. |
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