Preface

1. Background

2. Commercial Opportunities and Markets

3. Managing Birds & Reptiles, current practice, principles & some option?

4. Alternative Management Models

5. Discussion

6. Conclusions

7. Further Research

The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation's (RIRDC) charter covers goals directed to the management of natural resources and assistance to businesses to capture global market opportunities. The Corporation's vision is for an innovative, efficient and profitable Australian rural sector producing and marketing products from improving production systems into a range of world markets. The raising and breeding of animals is a specific primary industry activity for which RIRDC has a responsibility within its New Animal Products Program.

Funding of the project "Sustainable economic use of native Australian Birds and Reptiles" was viewed as a genuine and important role for RIRDC. The overall aim of the study was to identify the potential of, and propose a management regime for, an industry based on exports of native birds and reptiles while also enhancing conservation and biodiversity.

Research is continually required on ways of conserving Australian native animals. The fauna has unique biodiversity yet its conservation is continually constrained by biological, social and economical needs, particularly that related to agriculture. The natural biodiversity has to be retained and numbers increased as necessary. To do this effectively essential habitats have to be protected and expanded. This can be achieved by supplementing intrinsic value of the species where appropriate with an economic value through the application of sustainable use.

Sustainable use was identified as a major factor in the report prepared on the project findings. This report was prepared by ACIL Economics and Policy Pty Ltd in conjunction with Agriculture Western Australia. Before distributing the report RIRDC invited a range of interested parties to a meeting in September 1996 to discuss the conclusions developed in the project. Suggestions were invited on how to further proceed to implement a conservation strategy with the aim of sustainable economic use of Australian Birds and Reptiles.

At the meeting there was common agreement that only so much can be achieved by using national estates for conservation of Australian birds and reptiles. Enhanced conservation has to be stimulated by providing the correct incentives for private investment. This does not mean uncontrolled use of Australian fauna but economic incentives, for instance, whereby landowners contribute to conservation on their farms. Landowners must be given financial encouragement to protect and expand habitats such as bushland rather than replace natural ecosystems in endeavours of other agricultural pursuits that might provide more immediate dividends. Given an economic incentive to conserve, landowners will treat assets such as Australian birds and reptiles as a renewable resource.

There were varying opinions at the meeting on the role of captive breeding and ranching in increasing supply and the relevance of these activities to sustainable use and conservation. Also there were different thoughts on the selection of species that could be initially proposed, although many believed that the choice of species should be based on existing knowledge on the conservation status and biology of species, breeding, habitats and economic considerations.

The report outlines the potential value of Australian birds and reptiles on international markets. While it was agreed at the meeting that the opportunity for exporting would deter smuggling there was recognition of the commercial restrictions imposed by the requirements of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection Act 1982. This Act is administered by Environment Australia and it is the legislation that regulates the export of native wildlife and enables Australia to fulfil international obligations under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

Animal welfare organisations were invited to the meeting, but no representatives attended. The meeting acknowledged the importance of animal welfare needs in captive breeding and ranching. However, most participants agreed that sustainable use issues have to be separately addressed and judged within a framework of sound animal welfare practices.

There was agreement that among aims of future research and development there should be testing of the concepts of sustainable use of Australian birds and reptiles by the introduction of experimental management conditions. This activity should be undertaken in partnership with Commonwealth, State and Territory wildlife agencies in whom responsibility for the management of native wildlife is vested. Initially this could be for a selection of species in a focus area. Already both the Northern Territory and South Australian governments, for instance, have made moves to introduce strategies, and trial management plans for the sustainable use of certain native animals. The objectives of the management plans include an emphasis on experimentation based on knowledge so that adaptive approaches and opportunities can be made. Fostering cooperation between landowners and regulatory authorities in sustainable use and conservation is highlighted.

The move towards expanding experimental management plans for the sustainable use of live Australian birds and reptiles as proposed represents a significant departure from current government policy on commercial use and export. There is therefore a need for consultation on commercial opportunities with conservation agencies and interested organisations. To this end this report has been circulated to appropriate government departments for assessment and consideration of present and future policy decisions in sustainable use of native birds and reptiles.

Dr Peter McInnes
Research Manager

Synopsis

Sustainable Economic Use of Birds and Reptiles

Some Australian native birds and reptiles which are common on the Australian market have high economic value in foreign markets because the commercial export of all live wild animal species, even budgerigars is not permitted. This report outlines a management regime which has the ultimate aim of increasing wild populah'ons of the less common species. It also aims to remove some of the anomalies in current national policies on bird ownership and subsequent trade which have little conservation benefit. It does not propose the export of adult wild-caught 'pest 'birds because of concerns about animal welfare.

Permitting the commercial use of native birds and reptiles within strict rules, can contribute to the national economy. The market is large and pet ownership of birds and reptiles is substantial throughout the world. It meets social needs, improves wildlife awareness and is generally within acceptable animal welfare standards, especially for smaller species. A controlled international trade would reduce smuggling while allowing pet owners andfanciers personalfreedom.

A carefully regulated trade that focuses on the conservahon of wild populations and that only imposes on the owners of captive bred birds and reptiles where the case is well made, would help to reverse environmental degradation and achieve the goal of increasing the distribution and numbers of wild species. Giving nadve species which occur on private land a commercial value would enable them to compete with non-native species for habitat and encourage landholders to improve the resources on which wild animals depend. Landholders are more able to control the key factors impacting on wild animals, such as exotic predators and destruction of habitat than are governmentfunded programs, but to manage species, and provide shelter and protech'on on a larger scale they need incentives. Surplus young offspring of common species such as galahs and long necked tortoises, which are readily available on the domestic market and yet valuable overseas, could be harvested and reared on farms. This would be a precursor to initiating the main conservation benefit of ranching more valuable species such as Major Mitchell cockatoos in conjunction with preservah'on of habitat.

It is sometimes suggested that capturing wild birds that are a nuisance and selling them will solve pest problems. However capturing adult birds can be cruel particularly in regard to their ability to adapt to captivity and transport. These animal welfare issues need closer examination. Young, hand-reared birds which are tame and easily handled make the best pets and have the strongest market.

1. BACKGROUND

Commercial use and trade, particularly international trade, of Australian wildlife is a controversial issue. Opinions are divided, and often strongly felt, about whether it is morally defensible. Current policy restricts trade with the aim of protecting individual specimens' and reducing the adverse impact of humans upon them. It contains many anomalies and inconsistencies in the protection given to different species in different jurisdictions. Wild flowers and bush tucker are traded in a growing international market with public acceptance; kangaroo leather and meat is exported; so too is emu meat, oil and crocodile products.

Within Australia, commercial trade and the keeping and breeding of pet birds and reptiles is permitted under a licensing system administered by State wildlife services. Export of live birds and reptiles, however, is tightly restricted and commercial trade prohibited even for the ubiquitous budgerigar and cockatiel. These export restrictions prevent an industry from developing that could benefit the conservation of species. Meanwhile, price pressures remain bottled up creating temptation for international smuggling. Cruelty is often a by-product of such traffic.

Current policy also fails to deal adequately with the effects of the breadth and extent of habitat change outside of conservation reserves on a variety of native species.

State and federal wildlife authorities and conservation organisations have primary responsibility for these policy issues. Any management regime that permitted controlled export of wild birds and reptiles would also have to be consistent with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

This review is the first stage of a scoping study of options and possible improvements to see if the twin objectives of increased economic activity and improved conservation practices and outcomes can be simultaneously achieved. It was funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), which is a government agency concerned with promoting opportunities for new and emerging industries. The second stage will describe the management regime in greater detail, the links between captive breeding and wild populations and animal welfare issues.

1.1 Aims

• To review the potential for allowing expansion of current avicultural and herpetocultural industries within Australia.
• To provide a scientific underpinning to any changes and improvements to policy including enhancement of animal welfare and conservation status
• To consider a controlled management regime that permits exports of captivebred birds and reptiles; and that enables the export of wild birds or their offspring, providing it also enhances habitat protection and biodiversity.

Commercial data were collected and markets and prices overseas assessed by Agriculture Western Australia. The views and comments were sought from all the government conservation, vertebrate pest and agricultural agencies, and a wide range of other institutions. In addition opinions on commercialisation from aviculturists and herpetologists, wildlife management societies, and animal welfare, conservation and preservation organisations were gathered. Lengthier submissions are acknowledged in the full report.

1.3 Structure

This Executive Summary and the associated Report first present and analyse opportunities for commercial use of birds and reptiles. They then comment on the effectiveness of current policies on conservation of species and propose alternative management plans for specimens away from reserves and for those bred in captivity. The issues affecting these suggestions and the role of the market place are discussed.

2. COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITIES AND MARKETS

Markets for determining the economic values of reptiles and birds are well established for the pet and bird fanciers trades. The figures which follow are presented more comprehensively in the full report. They come from many sources; avicultural and herpetocultural societies within Australia, international trade journals, avicultural and herpetocultural magazines and TRAFFIC.

2.1. Values of samples of birds in Australia and overseas

A log scale has been used so that both the highly valued and most common species can be presented on the one axis. The data show large price opportunities between Australian and overseas markets, particularly for larger birds. Smaller birds, which breed more prolifically, produce more eggs per clutch and which are easier to keep, have lower value.

2.2 Reptiles

On theother hand, large Australian such as the pythons are actually cheaper in USA. US herpetoculturalists have been bredding pythons for many years. Their greater success means prices, which are nevertheless high, are not so different from Australia.

3. Managing Birds and Reptiles - Current Practice, Principles and some Options?

 3.1 Scale of environmental problems

Current wildlife protection policies and procedures have difficulty confronting the major factors that are threatening wildlife and undermining the conservation of biodiversity. They give legal protection to individual wild birds and reptiles outside parks and reserves and come from an era when the focus of wildlife management was controls on hunting. On a national scale more needs to be done to maintain shelter as habitat, to sustain food sources and to control predators.

Government programs do not have the resources to sponsor the needed ameliorative work. They are not dealing with the scale of the problem; the rate of habitat loss, environmental degradation and human induced mortality factors. They are impotent to improve breeding success though enhanced food sources and shelter; and have little impact on mortality due to exotic predators, such as foxes and cats, or death by misadventure, such as road kills.

Because control over habitat lies with landholders, habitat protection procedures away from reserves and predator control are reliant on the personal commitment of landholders to cooperate and on other imperfect mechanisms such as controls on land clearing.

Private landholders need clear incentives to help and cooperate with one another. This report suggests ways, other than government program expenditure, for achieving that end.

3.2 Incentives needed for habitat protection

Tree conservation and the retention of native bush are key actions in reversing soil degradation and salinity in waterways. Yet clearing trees is often to the advantage of farmer because it encourages pasture and allows the growing of crops.

The concept on this paper is to offset the loss of conventional agricultural production when clearing is not undertaken by harvesting surplus wild birds from nest hollows in the trees and reptiles and rearing them intensively.

A regulated trade in birds and reptiles utilising the natural capacity of the

population to increase could also bring economic benefits to the community as a whole, assist in the control of smuggling and alleviate suffering.

Commercial returns would also enable the planting of trees and creation of other improvements including artificial nest boxes. To enhance their wildlife resources landholders would also have an incentive to control predators, and manage pasture and crops to ensure a feed supply.

3.3 Sustainable harvesting

Scientists and wildlife managers recognise that it is technically possible to harvest Australian birds and reptiles without adverse impact on wild populations. The annual harvest plus natural mortality would have to be less than or equal to the natural increase. Recruitment is sustained by provision of food, shelter and predator control. Farmers use the same principle when determining the number of livestock to sell each year to maintain their herds and flocks at rates that sustain productivity.

3.4 Valuing the wildlife resource

Wildlife management would be improved and wildlife populations safeguarded in the long term if the potential value of wildlife species are realised outside reserves and used to protect habitat, control exotic predators and even increase numbers .

The underlying premise in this paper is that unless values can be attached to wild resources, including economic value, people will not modify their behaviour or adopt strategies to live sustainably with the natural world. The other values which people attach to wildlife are ecological and ethical/cultural values. Incentives based on the economic, ecological, cultural and ethical values of wildlife will bring support for biodiversity strategies.

3.5 Wild animal ownership

If wild animals not in conservation reserves were owned by the landholder or acquired under license, as is done for minerals and other resources, and they were valuable, the incentive to protect them and nurture their habitat would be stronger.

3. 5.1 Existing examples

In the Northern Territory crocodile 'ranching', which is the collection of eggs from the wild for rearing in farms, has created incentives for the owners of habitat to

protect the river banks by removing buffalo and to regulate harvesting. Where ownership is not allocated and there is open access, such as in marine fisheries, the resource is often over exploited, and pollution and development damage breeding areas. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) makes provision for these ranching operations and permits international trade in products.

Aboriginal communities have expressed a desire to extend these sort of operations and to harvest young goannas, turtles and pythons both for use by other Aboriginal communities and to Supply a commercial market.

 In Africa the value of wild animals to local communities, who are given ownership of them both for food and tourism, is proving to be the best method of ensuring their survival. In Europe and America, the value of animals for hunting and fishing has protected thousands of hectares of land, forests and rivers from destructive development and maintained populations of deer, game birds, salmon and trout in the face of voracious competition for their habitat. The benefits of protecting habitat also flow to other species and maintain biodiversity.

4. ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT MODELS

 This section of the summary presents models to put these ideas into effect.

 4.1 Goal for management based on sustainable use

Conservation of bird and reptile species and an increase in the wealth and well being of society as whole through a process that enables efficient allocation of resources and an equitable trade of between productive use, preservation of species and maintenance of biodiversity.

Delivery of the goal has two commercial components:

• one based on ranching of wild specimens; and
•  another on captive bred animals.

4.2 Participants

The participants in the model are Producers; Government agencies or Regulators; and consumers.

 4.2. 1 Producers

 Producer participants in the proposals are:

 Governments supervise both the conservation or regulation of harvesting and animal welfare aspects. The CITES makes provision for commercial trading in both ranched and captive-bred species. It sets down procedures which apply to species listed in the CITES Appendix I and II and could be applied to all Australian species exported as pets. All the parrots and many reptiles such as all the varanids (goannas), terrapins and tortoises, pythons, and crocodiles are already listed.

Complex aviary registration and retail monitoring systems are in place in most States for the domestic bird market. The scheme is being extended to exotic birds with the introduction in 1996 of a Commonwealth Regulation of Exotic Birds Registration Scheme. The proposed liberalisation of trade would be encompassed within these schemes.

To differentiate between captive-bred animals and those of wild origin, microchips and DNA 'figure printing' techniques are being developed. They enable captive birds of nominated origin to be differentiated from wild birds.

State animal welfare bureaus and wildlife authorities have established codes of practice for the housing of caged birds in the domestic trade. They stipulate standards for husbandry, feeding, water, accommodation, minimum cages sizes health and quarantine processes. In some States these codes are backed up with legislation.

Many thousands of birds are currently exported. Included are wild trapped exotic green finches, gold finches and canaries, and Australian species exported as bonafide pets. These birds are subject to IATA Live Animal Regulations and the parrots to CITES requirements because all parrots, bar three, are listed in the CllkS Appendix II or higher.

CITES also asks importing countries to note and comment on the good health or any suspicion of disease in imported birds; and if the type of box and its construction correspond to the IATA regulations, are overcrowded or the boxes damaged, ventilation problems, lack of water/food. These requirements for monitoring trade already exist in Australia.

4.2.3 Consumers

Consumers are the bird fanciers, pet owners and professional collectors, both in Australia and overseas

4.3 Ranching of wild birds and reptiles away from conservation reserves

Under the proposed management regime the commercial value of specimens would provide incentives for landholders to protect suitable habitat and encourage increases in populations of native species. The proposal would enable species to compete more effectively for habitat with non-native species and so achieve the goal of conservation of species off reserves.

Further research is needed to define the processes and methods and the links to the captive breeding program, and to clarify who are the beneficiaries and who should pay for government regulation.

The elements of the proposed management regime are:

4.4 Captive-bred birds and reptiles

The export of a limited range of small captive-bred species common in the aviary and herpetocultural trade but sufficiently valuable to warrant the expenditure, is proposed by this paper on a trial basis. Examples of such species currently bred in captivity and for which profit margins appear to be sufficient include:

hooded parrots, Cloncurry parrots and Adelaide parrots, long-necked tortoises and blue-tongued lizards,budgerigars and cockatiels.

The market would determine if the margins and production costs from the latter species make the enterprise worth while.

The components of a management regime are similar to the ranching proposals above

Public debate about whether the domestic trade in Australia should be extended to allow the commercial export of live native birds and reptiles occurs regularly. Proponents of removing the barriers draw attention to:

 · the significance of Overseas market for Australian birds and reptiles;

 · the opportunity for commercial gain for the nation from one of its natural resources; and

 · the damage which pest birds do to Australian agriculture.

 Those who wish to maintain the trade barriers have expressed:

 · moral concerns about interfering with native animals and their rights to roam or fly free;

 · animal welfare concerns about the suffering which commercial use inflicts on animals; and

 · conservation fears that trade will aggravate the threat to endangered species.

These views are held so strongly that many of the opponents of international trade in wild animals are unwilling to examine options and to participate in a balanced debate to see if there are other management options which would simultaneously deliver a better result for conservation and the welfare of the animals. Finding solutions to the complex array of environmental issues concerning the use of Australia's resources requires consideration of as many ideas as possible. Debate should not be restricted by pressure that seeks to limit the freedom of others and constrain innovation and choice.

5.2 Role of the market place in resource use decisions

The market place is the best way of allowing new ideas to emerge, determining economic value, changing ownership and in most cases regulating the use of resources. Markets enable decisions about the actual or potential benefits of a service and product cheaply and quickly. They utilise vast amounts of information, dispersed over many sites, more effectively than governments are able to do.

5.1 Commercial use of wildlife—an emotive subject

Although markets enable freedom and the pursuit of private interests while also conferring public benefit, the power of government is however often needed to establish controls so as to protect, support, and modify trade to meet community goals. Such regulations already exist in the wild bird and reptile market and under these proposals would be modified to enable greater enterprise and improve wildlife conservation.

For many people, however the defects of politicians and bureaucrats have made government an unreliable and imperfect instrument for achieving social ends. Consequently regulations should be as few as possible to achieve the stated goal..

5.3 Animal welfare - meeting the standards a major requirement

A key impediment to wildlife use is concern about meeting acceptable animal welfare standards. If the only issue was conservation, then current policies developed for animal products such as emu meat, and for native plants would also apply to live animals. Thus proposals for using animals must have high animal welfare standards and any risk must be offset by substantial gains for the conservation of the species as a whole. Proposals should initially concentrate on smaller species. It is more difficult to meet acceptable animal welfare standards for large birds and reptiles than it is for the smaller birds such as budgerigars and cockatiels.

One step in reducing the cruelty of smuggling is to remove the incentive and bring trade under the control of existing codes of practice. The proposals will therefore assist in stopping smuggling and improving the welfare of animals in trade.

5.4 Pest control—export trade an unlikely option

Concern about the welfare of wild birds following trapping and transport all mitigate against capture and export as a form of pest control. In addition, the scale and timing of Australian pest problems is-such that a trapping program is unlikely to bring relief.

Flocks of pest birds could be exported to control damage but the premium overseas market is for tame pet birds in good condition. Wild-caught cockatoos that are currently sold for the domestic market are young animals: older birds have lesser market value. Most purchasers want pets of known age that do not squawk and which do not bite.

Also other countries need to consider closely the wisdom of allowing the import of wild pest birds in case they escape or were released as unsatisfactory pets.

5.5 Preserving genetic resources

Australian wildlife is both part of the national cultural heritage and a national genetic asset. Gene banks are being established to preserve it; embryos frozen and semen stored as a precaution in case other conservation efforts are unsuccessful. If commercial breeding of live animals expands, numbers would increase and the preserved material would be supplemented by the living genetic resources.

The origins of captive colonies of wild animals however need close monitoring before any release.: Private ownership of wildlife and captive breeding has enabled selection for colour mutants and phases not seen in the wild. If captive animals escape or are released the impact on genetic status of wild populations is not likely to be beneficial.

5.6 Ownership of Australia's wildlife resources

Property rights and ownership of resources are central tenets of our society. They apply to land, to livestock and to many other resources including the habitat of wildlife, but not the animals themselves, unless they are pets in captivity. Even then the law is unclear in defining whether a protected species belongs to its owner or the Crown. Uncertainty over these ownership issues retards the captive breeding of colonies of endangered species. Ironically, where private ownership has been established breeding has followed which has increased the security of the future of species such as the golden shouldered parrot which is now relatively common in aviaries.

 5.6.1 Aboriginal ownership and use

Prohibitions on the use of native animals have denied commercial access to Aboriginal people of species that may be more culturally appropriate to them than domesticated livestock from Europe. Aboriginal Australians used wildlife for eons before British law and European cultural perspectives arrived. Traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are currently able to use the native flora and fauna on their land for their own purposes but commercial use is not allowed.

5.6.2 Pet ownership

Pet ownership is legitimate and contact with, and knowledge about, native animals plays a significant role in education and motivation of people towards conservation objectives. Many young people have had their awareness and concern for wildlife stimulated by ownership of tortoises or parrots.

Research into companion animals and the bond to humans is relatively recent. It supports anecdotal evidence that 'pets are good for you' and shows measurable health benefits directly attributable to animal companionship. While focusing on dogs and cats it has also extended to birds and aquarium fish. Researchers have found that pet ownership improves an ordinary person's general health, raises confidence, self esteem and capacity to cope with the stresses of life.

6. CONCLUSIONS

 · The potential value of wildlife species outside reserves should be allowed to be realised to help protect habitat and thereby safeguard wildlife populations in the long term and even assist increase numbers.

 · A second stage of this project would examine in greater detail the scope and procedures for management regime needed to implement the concept.

 · The aim should be the simplest management program that enhances the status and condition of birds and reptiles in the wild.

Under the proposed management regime, exports would be permitted on a trial basis, initially of a limited range of species. The provisions and requirements of CITES in regard to ranching, breeding species in captivity and transport should be used as the minimum criteria set for the proposals.

The current registration and management regimes for Australian birds and reptiles by States and the Commonwealth should be the basis of the trials which should involve specimens that have been DNA typed. Opportunities exist for improving the efficiency of current registration schemes.

The proposal would be staged as follows.

1. Initially captive breeding or farmed specimens focusing on smaller species to which animal welfare concerns are less likely to apply. For example:

 2. Then, harvesting of surplus young of common species from the wild, prior to Hand-rearing in captivity ('ranching'). Species of potential for trial include: galahs, sulphur-crested cockatoos, goannas and carpet pythons, particularly for ranching by Aboriginal people.

 3. Then ranching operations should be extended to less common species but only as part of a management plan that includes prior habitat improvement, mortality control and agreement to release back to the wild. The scheme to include less common species such as: gang gang, Major Mitchell and red-tailed black cockatoos birds of prey such as peregrine falcons cassowaries, bustards, other tortoises, pythons, geckos and frogs Adelaide, Cloncurry and hooded parrots long-necked tortoises, blue-tongued lizards budgerigars and cockatiels, if market demand indicates it is worth while at current prices

7. FURTHER RESEARCH

The next stage of the project should develop the details of the proposed management regimes. It should also recommend methods for determining the numbers of surplus animals available for harvest on a sustainable basis in a population and relating it to habitat improvement procedures that deliver enhanced conservation status.

It should consider the principles for a market based approach to conservation which has the aim of enabling commercial use of native birds and reptiles on a sustainable basis while also improving conservation status.

The continuing project should describe and cost the use of DNA fingerprinting, microchipping and other identification procedures that enable confirmation of the parenthood and origin of specimens in trade. It would estimate costs for a monitoring program, inspection procedures and a regulatory process.

It would review animal welfare issue and the extent that wild animals are successfully used in the international pet trade and the conservation benefits which flow to landholders overseas.